e W Reaping the Rewards of Enlightenment by Elizabeth Wanek, MD T
he presence of an established tar- iff for the practice of medicine and surgery in the Code of Hammu-
rabi (the sixth king of Babylon), 1800 BCE (Before Christian Era), suggests that the profession had begun to establish itself well before then, perhaps dating to the Sumerian civilization (between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) of 4000 BCE. Comprehending the cause of disease
and the operation of remedies in ancient Babylon (modern day Iraq) was deeply intertwined with primitive folk medicine and a belief in supernatural forces. Ratio- nal understanding of organ systems and functions of the human body was impos- sible. There was, however, categorization of a wide variety of ailments, grouped according to the part of the body that was affected. Treatment consisted of a long list of vegetable, mineral and animal sub- stances, including excreta. Treatments were specially prepared for administration, in ways impossible to ascertain, and either applied directly to the affected area, given by mouth, and or administered by rectal suppository. There is little indication that medicine during this time was helpful for the underlying condition, with written records revealing the physician of the time moved through the long list of treatments for the same disease, mostly without suc- cess.
The first documented physician in Egypt was Imhotep in 2725 BCE. Egyp- tian medicine was influenced by Babylonian practices and beliefs, but ex- panded with knowledge of anatomy and the
Natural Triad Magazine SEPTEMBER 2013 27
availability of instruments developed for primitive surgical procedures and the mummification process. Doctors in an- cient Egypt went through years of medical education, conducted by high priests in the temple, learning the art of interroga- tion, inspection and palpation. Medical practice in Egypt included magical spells to ward off supernatural intervention on diagnosis and treatment. With a greater understanding of anatomy, Egyptian treat- ments were more successful, with stan- dardized prescriptions for wound healing, skin disorders, intestinal parasites, and migraines, said to be made and used per- sonally by Egyptian gods. The Greeks, with an independent, sea-faring spirit and quest for knowledge, moved Western medicine into the modern age. Greek medical thought combined ancient empirical lay medicine with the science of mathematics, geometry, as- tronomy, physics and alchemy, the precur-
sor to modern chemistry. From the Pythagorean school of thought, as developed by Empedocles of Agrigentum (504 – 443 BCE), came the doctrine of the four humors; blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm, matched to the four elements: fire, air, water and earth, associated with the four sacred colors of the alchemists: red, yellow, black and white. From the school of Philolaus of Tarentum (480 – 400 BCE), came the doctrine of the three spirits: The vegetative spirits, located at the navel, were shared with all things that grow. The animal spir- its, centered in the heart and giving rise to movement and sensation, were shared by all beasts. The rational spirit was situated in the brain and shared by man alone. Advancements in anatomy were hampered by a Greek taboo against dissection, be- lieving that the physical body was con- nected to the soul, even in death.
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