More effective compliance, enforcement and other instruments are needed, as current efforts are not sufficient to achieve the aims of the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 14. Interventions based on emerging technologies, taking into account a precautionary approach, in accordance with international agreements (where applicable), and strategic management approaches, such as resilience-based management and ecosystem-based management, can contribute to improved conservation of marine ecosystems and marine living resources. {7.1, 14, 14.2.1, 14.2.3, 14.2.4}
A holistic, integrated monitoring and assessment of the marine environment needs to be fostered hand in hand with the implementation of pollution reduction measures to achieve and maintain the targets of “Good Environmental Status” of the marine environment, including harmonization of assessment criteria and methods at all levels. To be effective, such measures should be combined with actions to mitigate and adapt to climate change and reduce the input of pollution and litter to the oceans while promoting their conservation and sustainable use. {7.3.1, 7.3.2, 7.3.3}
The rate of human-induced release of greenhouse gases is driving rising sea levels, changes in ocean temperatures and ocean acidification. Coral reefs are being devastated by those changes (well established). Mass coral bleaching, induced by chronic heat, has damaged many tropical reefs beyond recovery (well established). The collective value of coral reefs has been estimated at US$29 billion per annum. The loss of coral reefs has an impact on fisheries, tourism, community health, livelihoods and marine habitats (well established). Interventions based on emerging technologies and sustainable management approaches (such as resilience-based management, integrated coastal zone management and ecosystem-based management) are key to building resilience and may help to preserve some areas of reef (unresolved), but Governments should prepare for a dramatic decline (if not a collapse) (well established) of coral reef-based industries and ecosystem services, as well as negative effects on food chains related to the decline and collapse of coral reefs. {7.3.1, 14.2.1}
The oceans play an important role in the global economy and are likely to become increasingly important. Fisheries and
aquaculture currently generate US$252 billion annually. Small-scale fisheries support the livelihoods of between 58 million and 120 million people (established but incomplete). Fish provide 3.1 billion people with over 20 per cent of their dietary protein and contain nutrients important for their health. Ensuring the sustainability of capture fisheries and aquaculture requires significant investment in monitoring, assessment and operations management and, in many cases, strong local community- based approaches. Investment in fisheries monitoring and gear technologies can improve selectivity of target species when harvesting and reduce habitat impact, both in ocean fisheries and aquaculture. {14.2.4}
Measures to minimize the effects of fishing on the ecosystem have had mixed success (established but incomplete). Where resource assessments and monitoring, control, and surveillance and enforcement measures are not available, overfishing and illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing continues and may be expanding (established but incomplete). {14.2.3, 14.4, 14.5}
Marine litter, including plastics and microplastics, is now found in all oceans, at all depths (established but incomplete). The scale and importance of the problem has received increasing attention in recent years, but there are still large gaps in knowledge. Current estimates suggest that input of plastic marine litter linked to domestic waste mismanagement in coastal areas amounts to some 8 million tonnes annually, (established but incomplete) 80 per cent of which originates from land-based sources. Marine plastic litter can result in a significant ecological impact from entanglement and ingestion, and can also act as a vector for the transport of invasive species and other pollutants (established but incomplete). Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) is a major source of marine litter. Not only is ALDFG highly harmful, it also reduces numbers of fish stock and constitutes a significant economic threat, given its ability to damage maritime vessels, fisheries and ecosystem services. {7.3.3, 7.4.3}
The growing presence and abundance of microplastics has potential adverse effects on the health of both marine organisms (established but incomplete) and humans (unresolved). Furthermore, marine litter has a significant economic impact on a range of coastal sectors, such as tourism and recreation, shipping
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Figure SPM.3. Map showing the maximum heat stress experienced during the 2014–2017 global coral bleaching event 40
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Note: Alert level 2 heat stress indicates widespread coral bleaching and significant mortality; alert level 1 heat stress indicates significant coral bleaching; lower levels of stress may also have caused some bleaching.
10 Summary for Policymakers: Sixth Global Environment Outlook
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