that limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius show deep reductions that are similar to those in pathways limiting warming to 2 degrees Celsius.2


Government capacity and political will to manage air pollution and climate change varies significantly (well established). Some regions have well-developed systems of national-to-local policies and compliance and enforcement programmes (well established), although ambition levels in terms of both scope and policy may differ. In other regions, international agreements or national legislation may exist, but implementation and compliance and enforcement are often affected by weak national-to-local institutional capacity (established but incomplete). Future policy efforts can build upon renewed attention to those issues in international forums and several decades of experience with various governance strategies in different countries. Between 1998 and 2010, there was a five-fold increase in the number of national climate laws (more than 1,500 laws and policies worldwide) and by 2012 those laws covered 67 per cent of all emissions (well established). Some city and subnational governments are leading the way with benefits for other parts of their countries (well established). {5.4, 5.5, 12}


2.2.2 Biodiversity


A major species extinction event, compromising planetary integrity and Earth’s capacity to meet human needs, is unfolding. Biodiversity refers to the diversity of living things at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels. It helps to regulate climate, filters air and water, enables soil formation and mitigates the impact of natural disasters. It also provides timber, fish, crops, pollination, ecotourism, medicines, and physical and mental health benefits (well established). {6.1, 6.4.2}


Figure SPM.2. Global Living Planet Index 1.0


0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Year Source: World Wide Fund for Nature and Zoological Society of London (2018).


Note: The centre line shows the index values, indicating a 60 per cent decline between 1970 and 2014, and the upper and lower lines represent the 95 per cent confidence limits surrounding the trend. This is the average change in population size of 4,005 vertebrate species, based on data from 16,704 times series from terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats.


2 United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2018: Summary for Policymakers. In: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre- industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.


Environmental and human health are intricately intertwined, and many emerging infectious diseases are driven by activities that affect biodiversity (established but incomplete). Changes to the landscape (through natural resource extraction and use, for example) can facilitate disease emergence in wildlife, domestic animals, plants and people. Zoonoses are estimated to account for more than 60 per cent of human infectious diseases. {6.1, 13.1; boxes 6.1, 13.1}


Genetic diversity is declining, threatening food security and the resilience of ecosystems, including agricultural systems and food security (well established). {6.5.1}


Populations of species are declining and species extinction rates are increasing. At present, 42 per cent of terrestrial invertebrates, 34 per cent of freshwater invertebrates and 25 per cent of marine invertebrates are considered at risk of extinction. Between 1970 and 2014, global vertebrate species population abundances declined by on average 60 per cent (well established). Steep declines in pollinator abundance have also been documented. {6.5.2}


Ecosystem integrity and functions are declining. Ten out of every fourteen terrestrial habitats have seen a decrease in vegetation productivity and just under half of all terrestrial ecoregions are classified as having an unfavourable status (well established). {6.5.3}


Native and non-native invasive species threaten ecosystems, habitats and other species. The economic costs, both direct and indirect, amount to many billions of dollars annually. {6.4.2}


8


Summary for Policymakers: Sixth Global Environment Outlook


1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014


Index value (1970 = 1)


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