impossible. The process of interpretation and gap analyses of MEAs can consume scarce resources that might be better spent on implementation of existing commitments and requirements. Monitoring the implementation of environmental agreements requires effective national reporting to MEAs. n order to foster synergies between MEAs, the harmonization of national reporting has been highlighted as an effective mechanism32 on issues of common concern.


, including between Arctic nations I II


Results from research conducted during the International Polar Year 2007–2008 are still emerging. The Arctic Council, through its working groups, is currently running major studies that will further alleviate some of the current knowledge gaps about populations, species, habitats, and ecosystems, as well as the trends and stressors of the Arctic biodiversity. The Arctic Biodiversity Assessment, the Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program, and the Arctic Council’s Sustaining Arctic Observing Network are such examples.


Existing MEAs are not sufficiently implemented Although existing MEAs may be effective in responding to threats caused by local, national, or regional activities, a common observation in the literature is that lack of implementation is a prevalent problem29, p.6


. It is difficult


to determine whether lack of implementation of MEAs is due to inherent problems within the substantive provisions of an agreement or whether a failure of political will, lack of resources and capacity, lack of integration into sectors impacting on the environment, or some other factor is impinging on the effectiveness of any given MEA.


The number of MEAs with some potential relevance for the Arctic, the linkages between and among them, and the complexity of issues to be addressed in order to have measureable, positive effects on biodiversity on land or at sea, make any generalized evaluation very difficult if not


36 PROTECTING ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY


In building knowledge about biodiversity, and in the implementation of MEAs, scientific monitoring plays an important role. However, biodiversity conservation in the Arctic goes far beyond monitoring of individual species, their migratory routes, and their habitats. Successful conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity depends to a great degree on the social, cultural, political, and economic factors at play.


Livelihoods and cultural diversity in the Arctic are increasingly recognized, and local and traditional knowledge and observations acknowledged. It is generally accepted that MEAs require the engagement of stakeholders at all levels to make them truly effective. Partnerships with Indigenous and local communities and organizations are a critical element of biodiversity-related strategies and activities in the Arctic. This is imbedded in CBD Article 8(j)33


, which recognises the knowledge, innovations and practices of Indigenous and local communities for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity: “Each contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, subject to national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge innovations and practices”.


Need for a holistic approach


The problem with existing mechanisms for protecting Arctic biodiversity is that they do not address the root causes or drivers


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