greenhouse gas emissions and transboundary pollutants come primarily from outside the Arctic region. This also applies to the harvest of migratory Arctic species and the loss of habitat for migratory birds wintering in Africa and Asia, where wetlands are declining rapidly.


I


This report suggests that Arctic-specific MEAs, or MEAs that focus primarily on activities in the Arctic, may not be particularly well-placed to be effective in tackling the root causes of this global phenomenon, nor to address the negative impacts on Arctic biodiversity. To ease some of the most significant pressures on Arctic ecosystems a major effort to implement measures outside the Arctic region is imperative.


The Synthesis Report from the international scientific conference on Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges & Decisions (Copenhagen, 10–12 March 2009)29


noted that: II


“The actual and potential impacts on biodiversity of human activities which take place in the Arctic are in many ways much easier to deal with than are the potential and actual impacts which human activities outside the Arctic may have upon the region. MEAs might score quite high on protecting Arctic biodiversity from the first category of activity, while failing dismally on the second”.


Need for targeting Arctic species and for protected areas Much could be gained by specifically targeting conservation efforts at selected Arctic migratory bird species. The protection of migratory “Arctic wildlife” cannot take place without collaboration between the Arctic nations and nations hosting migratory species during their migration or wintering, such as in tropical and temperate wetlands. The Arctic Council could play a more active role in supporting the development of specific conservation efforts for migratory Arctic wildlife with regard to binding agreements with such non-Arctic states. As there are already global conventions on migratory species in place, task-specific agreements are needed to secure equal protection of the migratory species both when present in the Arctic during summer as well as when present in temperate or tropical regions. The Convention on Migratory Species, with its provisions for


34 PROTECTING ARCTIC BIODIVERSITY


negotiating species-specific regional agreements, is a useful instrument in this regard. Unfortunately, USA, Canada and Russia are not party to the Convention on Migratory Species or its Agreements30


.


While increased action outside the Arctic is urgently required, Arctic nations need to substantially increase the extent of protected areas, especially in the coastal zone as well as the marine environment. Currently, only a fraction of the marine environment is protected, and an even lesser part adjacent to terrestrial protected areas, so crucial in the Arctic ecosystems. Protection of areas still remains one of the most effective tools available in management of Arctic resources, and so is the development of co-management programmes.


Lack of Arctic biodiversity data Good governance should respond to the status and trends of Arctic biodiversity. Although a significant amount of research has been done on Arctic biodiversity (including recognition of the importance of information through traditional and local knowledge) there is still a lack of sufficient data for a comprehensive understanding of the region7


. This also applies


to information on threats and stressors, for example those of persistent organic pollutants and their interaction with climate change31


. Consequently, efforts to protect Arctic biodiversity are being based, for the most part, on the precautionary principle.


There are however, some positive observations that can be made about the global consciousness of Arctic biodiversity over recent years. For example, the level of political and public awareness of Arctic-related environmental issues has increased dramatically, in both the Arctic states and in other parts of the world. This awareness appears to be founded on the strong cooperative scientific research efforts that have brought to light the rapidly changing state of the Arctic, including declines in Arctic sea ice, impacts on some iconic species such as polar bears (see case study on Polar bear), and the impacts on Arctic and sub-Arctic Indigenous Peoples. The retreat of Arctic sea ice in summer has also fuelled speculation about access to resources, and access generally, in the Arctic. This in turn has augmented awareness of environmental concerns.


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