changed the physical security overlay of Baghdad International Airport and the natural MANPADS risk mitigation this provided. A security supplier in Baghdad reported during the research that on occasions, low frequency, low impact security incidents occur against the airport infrastructure suggesting that the standard measures reduce opportunity, but do not displace the intent of offenders. The research purported that it was not thought effective enough to judge national risks to civil aviation based on one location. However, subsequent research illustrated that existing risk perceptions were hinged upon security events occurring in Baghdad Governorate and the security agencies’ ability to play the role of a capable guardian. Additionally, the results identified that it is unclear at this time how much of the ICAO risk management methodology is adopted throughout Iraq and that industry stakeholders would require further evidence of implemented security risk management systems.
Events like 9/11 and subsequent incidents have undoubtedly contributed to people’s own risk perception of the safety of civil aviation as memories of the latest incidents become salient in risk estimates. But, to what degree are expert and public judgments about risk different when it comes to civil aviation security in Iraq? The Royal Society (1992) illustrated the complexity of social factors when mediating perceptions of risk. Any measure of risk needs to be sensitive to the system of understanding in which risk is viewed, coupled with the premise that seemingly irrational views may actually constitute logical constructions of perceived reality.
“...open source media was generally perceived to be limited in its validity...”
There are several aviation security related events that contribute to theories of how risk perception is formed. Discussion concerning aviation security has been intense since 9/11 as regulators and industry attempt to universally agree on mutually protective security arrangements.
Therefore issues
of air transport security have seemingly been rendered into people’s memories for generations to come. To this end, the research participants identified a number of confirmed risk events which correlated to aviation security events occurring within the jurisdiction of Iraq, when probed further during the interview stage of the research. This was further supported in an incident summary (not exhaustive) compiled by the Australian government (2009) following 9/11 of international aviation security incidents:
§ 21 December 2001, Richard Reid, attempted to ignite an improvised explosive device (IED) concealed in his shoes on a flight to Miami;
December 2012 Aviationsecurityinternational
§ 28 November 2002, surface-to-air missiles (MANPADS) were fired at a civil aircraft taking off from Mombasa, Kenya;
§ 22 November 2003, a successful MANPADS attack at Baghdad International Airport, on a cargo aircraft;
§ August 2006, Operation Overt in London, where a plot to detonate IEDs onboard flights bound for the US was disrupted and prevented by authorities;
§ 23 March 2007, two civil cargo aircraft shot down after take-off at Mogadishu airport, Somalia;
§ 9 August 2007, civil pilots report seeing a flash of light from a fired missile as it rose from the ground, soon after taking off from Sulaimaniyah airport, Iraq;
§ 25 December 2009, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab attempted to ignite a concealed IED on a US-bound flight.
The most prominent of the incidents were those occurring in Iraq; the 22nd November 2003 MANPADS attack on a civil air cargo aircraft as it was landing into Baghdad International Airport, in addition to the missile sighting at Sulaimaniyah International Airport in August 2007. In the time since the 2003 incident, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) assembly has established a risk assessment methodology intended to balance government security programmes as a method for contracting states to improve risk assessment and risk prioritisation efforts. Iraq is a United Nations contracting state thus the international standards and recommended practices outlined in ICAO Annex 17 Security (March, 2011) apply to all the country’s 19 approved airports. At the time of the research programme, Baghdad International Airport was physically encircled by US military operations in a joint civil aviation infrastructure shared with Iraqi air force operations. Withdrawal of the US military from Iraq at the end of 2011
Risk Communication
Understanding the link between how risk is perceived and the way in which the communication of risk influences the risk perceptual process was critical to the research. Risk communication theory is grounded in the precepts of how the general public understands risks. In its infancy the concept of risk communication was conceived as a tool for educating the public. As a result, the communication of risk information has taken on objective and subjective elements. It was critical for the research programme to recognise the types of risk communication strategies used in relation to educating the public and civil aviation industry about issues concerning Iraq, the ongoing conflicts and critical infrastructure recovery initiatives. Understanding the role the media as a
source of dependable risk information for the participants of this research, was a key focus area. International political interest in Iraq and coverage of security matters have themed significantly across mass media in recent times. Thus the role of the media in providing fast, graphic, easy-to-comprehend pieces of security risk information to the wider public about Iraq’s security resulted in rich research findings. The results identified that challenges remain for organisations, not limited to civil aviation, in understanding how security risk perceptions of Iraq are related to the security risk perceptions of Iraq’s civil aviation industry. Participants identified that what compounded their perceptions was the man-made aspect of Iraqi-associated security risks.
Perceived Risks to Iraq’s Civil Aviation Industry The research demonstrated that participants possessed extensive experience and knowledge with regards to the country and market place of Iraq. This was primarily due
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