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State and trends


range states noted that over-harvest was occurring in some regions of the Arctic prior to signature of the 1973 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, management systems have since been put in place and the harvest is sustainable in most sub-populations across the Arctic (IUCN 2015). The range states agree that the most significant long-term threat to polar bears is climate change. In 2008, the US listed the polar bear as threatened under their Endangered Species Act, noting predicted declines in polar bears over the foreseeable future. Canada declined this move, though it remains (since 2008) listed as a species of “special concern”.


All Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) share a common goal of preventing species extinction caused by international trade. However, differing positions are common because the best strategy to protect a species is not always clear, especially when human lives or livelihoods are affected by species trade, or for high-value species in trade. For example, there are differences of opinion on whether the best way to protect elephants from being illegally killed for their ivory is to prohibit all trade in ivory, or to allow controlled legal ivory trade that will feed the demand for ivory and lower illegal market demand. The US, for its part, has championed efforts to reduce the demand for ivory by imposing tight national controls on its trade, and has been a leader in efforts to combat illegal wildlife trade. Controversies at CITES conferences include the proposed Appendix I listing of the Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), which Canada refused to support despite repeated efforts by many states. Indeed Canada helped persuade the International Commission on the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna to raise quotas in 2014 (Galloway 2014).


There is much room for continental collaboration on species diversity. For example, Canada and the US share many migratory species, such as the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), the grey whale, and many species of birds, and this has often served as a catalyst for political action and policy coordination; it is increasingly evident that habitat protection is necessary to ensure the survival of many of these species.


While there is room for improving policy coherence and collaboration between Canada and the US, there are several important bilateral and trilateral agreements on shared species and common biodiversity issues in North America, including the Migratory Birds Convention originally signed in 1916 between Canada and the US (Olive 2014; Waples 2013). This Convention remains an important and active mechanism to protect North American migratory species. Other examples of effective North American collaborative mechanisms include the Commission for Environment Cooperation, which has projects on the protection of habitats (such as grasslands) and species (such as monarch butterflies); the Trilateral Committee for Wildlife and Ecosystem Conservation and Management, which meets annually to address shared interests related to species conservation and shared issues; and the North American Bird Conservation Initiative. There has also been considerable progress in the establishment of transnational networking and scientific collaboration between the two countries (Temby and Stoett 2015).


2.3.4 Key drivers


Urbanization Urban sprawl is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in many parts of North America; this is reducing natural habitat in some areas and agricultural biodiversity in others. However, smarter and greener cities are on the horizon: the integration of green spaces, rooftop gardens, urban pollination programmes and other innovations are decreasing the ecological footprint of urban areas and conserving urban biodiversity, which is an often-neglected aspect of ecology. Many cities are newly committed to the theme of resilience, largely as a response to threats associated with climate change. The Rockefeller Foundation’s 100 Resilient Cities Challenge, for example, now includes commitments from 18 North American cities (including biodiversity-related commitments), and it is now increasingly accepted that the presence of urban biodiversity enhances human physical and mental health and can meaningfully contribute to human


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