Presenter: Voice:
Track 5.3
a. linguistic b. biological c. cultural d. amazing e. exotic f. central g. ethnocentric h. civilized i. normal j. acceptable k. religious
Presenter:
Lecturer 1: Presenter: Lecturer 2:
Presenter: Lecturer 3: Presenter:
Track 5.4 One.
OK. In today’s session, we are going to look at the history of research into short-term memory. Two.
So we talked last time about making friends. This time, I’m going to consider the problem of keeping friends. I’m going to describe the three main barriers to keeping friends, and give you some examples.
Three.
Right. We have heard about the idea of two selves. Now let’s compare Self 1 and Self 2. Let’s look at each point in turn. Four.
Lecturer 4: We talked last week about the great deserts of the world. Today, we’re going to look at the process of desertification. How does a fertile area become a desert?
Presenter: Lecturer 1:
Track 5.5 One.
OK. In today’s session, we are going to look at the history of research into short-term memory.
The first real research was conducted over 130 years ago, in the 1880s. A man called Joseph Jacobs gave people sets of numbers to remember. The sets got longer and longer. Jacobs found the average is around six or seven.
There’s a long break then until 1959. In that year, Peterson and Peterson published a study that looked at the length of short-term memory if there was no rehearsal. They found that people can remember meaningless shapes without rehearsal for about three seconds. But after 18 seconds, nearly everything is forgotten.
OK. Where have we got to? 1959. Right … In 1964, someone called Conrad said that we encode sensory information as sound. But only six years later, in 1970, another researcher called Shulman found that some information is encoded for meaning, not sound.
Presenter: Lecturer 2:
Two.
So we talked last time about making friends. This time, I’m going to consider the problem of keeping friends. I’m going to describe the three main barriers to keeping friends, and give you some examples.
Firstly, we have acceptance. Some people want to change other people. They cannot accept them the way they are. But most people don’t want to change, or can’t change, so that is the first barrier to friendship.
Secondly, there is approval. Some people find it easier to criticize than to find the good things in a person. Sometimes we find it difficult to be happy for another person’s success, even a close friend. People want to be approved of, so constant lack of approval is the second barrier to friendship.
Finally, appreciation. We have heard that you must accept a person for what they are. We have also heard that you must approve of your friends, their behaviour, their attitudes or their achievements. But you must go further if you want to keep friends. You must show that you accept and approve. Show that you value them, show that you appreciate them.
Presenter: Lecturer 3:
Three.
Right. We have heard about the idea of two selves. Now let’s compare Self 1 and Self 2. Let’s look at each point in turn. Self 1 is confident. Self 2 is doubtful.
Self 1 is how other people see us, but Self 2 is how we see ourselves. Self 1 looks at work and life and says, ‘Everything doesn’t have to be perfect.’ But for Self 2 it is everything or nothing. Self 1 is optimistic – the future will be better than the present. Self 2 is pessimistic. The future will be worse than the present.
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