122:


Scale of wind erosion of soils in Europe


In addition to water erosion, wind erosion caused by the simultaneous occurrence of high wind velocity, susceptibility of loose surface particles and insufficient surface protection is mainly concentrated in arid or semi-arid agricultural areas, where it leads to land degradation and to the deterioration of air quality (Funk and Reuter 2006). Wind erosion occurs predominantly on the Northern European Plain (northern Germany, eastern Netherlands and eastern England) and in parts of Mediterranean Europe (Verheijen et al. 2009). However, this process has been under-studied compared to other erosion phenomena (Borrelli et al. 2014a). Current evaluations indicate that wind erosion can be a significant problem in regions covering between 2.9 per cent (high susceptibility) and 5.3 per cent (moderate susceptibility) of the total EU surface area (Figure-L2 45).


A conservative assessment for the whole of Europe estimates the total cost of erosion in the range of €6 200 to €62 500 million. The severity of this problem has been acknowledged through the adoption of the EU Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection by the European Commission on 22 September 2006 (Montanarella 2007). However, to date, before the possible adoption of a Soil Framework Directive, soil degradation is only addressed indirectly in the framework of environmental policies. From 2015 onwards, the new Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) introduced a new policy instrument in Pillar 1, otherwise known as the Green Direct Payment. This accounts for 30 per cent of the national direct payment envelope and will reward farmers for respecting three obligatory agricultural practices, such as the maintenance of permanent grassland, creation of ecological focus areas and diversification of crops. As the green direct payment is compulsory, it has the advantages of introducing practices that are beneficial for the environment and climate change mitigation on most agricultural areas in use, and improving biodiversity also in other forms of land use, including ecological focus areas and permanent grasslands (EC 2014c).


123:


Rehabilitation of contaminated sites


The EC has promoted several positive experiences in the EU, spreading good practices among the member states as in the case of brownfield regeneration and soil revitalization. These can contribute to sustainable land management and provide an alternative to additional land take of around 275 ha/day in the EU28. Tackling past soil pollution is also an efficient way of limiting soil sealing, hence preserving agricultural land or green areas, and their ecosystem services. Brownfields have been affected by their former uses, and the surrounding land may have real or perceived contamination problems, and hence require interventions to bring them back to beneficial use. Nevertheless, in most cases, it is difficult to apply the polluter pays principle as the polluter may have already disappeared, and is either not liable according to the law (historical contamination) or cannot face remediation costs for economic reasons.


Among the many problematic cases throughout the EU, 29 success stories have already been achieved by fostering dialogue among interested parties at the local level, using new methodologies for in situ treatment and applying risk- based land management. A good example comes from Slovakia, where a programme for remediation of sites is under way (Malý 2015). Other key issues recognized as crucial for addressing soil contamination include efficient technology transfer, adopting modern comprehensive legislation and accelerating good communication among stakeholders, from authorities in charge to the public, following the Aarhus convention principles.


124: Soil resources of Central Asia


Central Asia is commonly associated with deserts, but in reality it is a region of high diversity of landscapes and corresponding soils. There is a distinct latitudinal aridity gradient from its northern steppe ecosystems, followed by intermediate dry steppes and semi-deserts, to the most southern part where there are desert ecosystems. Consequently, the soils in the more humid north are humus- rich Chernozems, while the intermediate zone still has fertile soils and the south is dominated by alkaline soils with very poor chemical, physical and biological properties. Two


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