Towards a green economy


China India


Middle East Other Asia


Latin America Africa


E. Europe/Eurasia OECD Europe OECD Pacific


OECD North America -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 Mtoe


Figure 3: Changes to energy consumption by sector and region between 2007 and 2030 Source: IEA (2009a)


CO2 emissions3 cent a year from 2004 to 2030.4 for roughly 73 per cent of the sector’s total CO2


, which is projected to increase by 1.7 per Land transport accounts emissions,


followed by aviation (11 per cent) and shipping (9 per cent). Passenger transport accounts for the lion’s share of overall emissions, with freight transport – predominantly road-based trucks – comprising 27 per cent of all transport energy use (and therefore emissions). More


3. OECD (2005) CO2 Emissions from Combustion 1971-2003.


4. IEA (2006) World Energy Outlook 2006, Available at http://www. worldenergyoutlook.org/2006.asp


than 80 per cent of the predicted growth in transport emissions is expected to come from road transport in developing countries (IEA 2009b).


Moreover, it is estimated that around 15 per cent of the total CO2


emissions generated from the car are a result


of manufacturing and disposal, when a full life-cycle analysis is conducted (King 2007).


Pollution and health Transport-related pollution, noise and vibration can pose serious threats to human health and wellbeing.5


Local air pollution is caused by exhaust Box 1: Externalities


Economic efficiency requires prices of goods or activities to match their social marginal cost including all external costs. Prices for transport services need to include costs imposed on society through congestion, accidents, infrastructure wear and tear, air pollution, noise and climate change so that choices made by the users of transport will take into account these costs (World Bank 2001; Button 1993).


Congestion, accident and pollution externalities make up a significant and increasing cost to the economy, amounting in some cases to over 10 per cent of national or regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A recent study by Creutzig and He (2009) estimates that in Beijing, China, the social costs induced by motorised transportation are equivalent to between 7.5 per cent and 15 per cent of the city’s GDP.


emissions produced by traffic, mostly in the form of Sulphur Oxides (SOx


), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx ), Carbon


Monoxide (CO), Hydro Carbon (HC), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Toxic Metals (TM), Lead Particles6 and Particulate Matter (PM) – including Black Carbon.7 These emissions represent a large proportion of pollutants, especially in developing cities.


Such air pollutants are a cause of cardiovascular/ pulmonary and respiratory disease. For example, exposure to lead can cause increased blood pressure,


5. The UNECE’s Transport, Health and Environment Pan-European


Programme (PEP) has published guidelines for improved cooperation on sustainable transport among various sectors (see UNECE 2009). A system of monitoring and reporting is being instituted to assess the extent to which Member States are effectively implementing the mechanisms agreed, and to measure progress against the priority goals of the Amsterdam Declaration, in particular Amsterdam Goal 1: “To contribute to sustainable economic development and simulate job creation through investment in environment and health-friendly transport.”


6. Although almost all countries have now banned leaded gasoline, there are still seven countries in which action is still needed.


7. Black carbon is “the solid fraction of PM2.5 that strongly absorbs light and converts that energy to heat” (ICCT 2009). Black carbon not only affects public health, but also contributes to climate change. Actions are needed to both reduce CO2


and black carbon. Available at: http://www.theicct.org/ pubs/BCsummary_dec09.pdf. 384


Transport Non-energy use Industry Power generation Other


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