relapse (p<0.05). Subjects 0.32, CI: 0.14– 0.74, Wald =
Works on the Principles
with both disorders displayed −2.65, p = .008). Older sub- of Good Graphical
an increased rate of relapse. jects are less likely to relapse, Presentation
Age was also significantly such that the odds of relapse
related to relapse (p<0.05). decrease by 25% for each
Written by Edward Tufte
Older subjects were more one-year increase in age (OR
The Visual Display of
likely to relapse. = 0.75, CI: 0.58–0.99, Wald
Quantitative Information.
= −2.04, p = .042).
Graphics Press, 1983
The style used in Example 5 is
both a reflection and a perpetra-
Use the Past Tense
Visual Explanations.
tor of the misuses of inferential The past tense is appropriate
Graphics Press, 1997
statistics. The dominance of the because the results section is
p-value is at the root of concerns supposed to be a description of
Beautiful Evidence.
among analysts such as J. Scott what was observed in the par-
Graphics Press, 2006
Armstrong in the International ticular study. The data are his-
Journal of Forecasting article torical when published. Use of
Written by William Cleveland
“Significance Tests Harm the present tense connotes an
Progress in Forecasting.” He extrapolation beyond the data
The Elements of Graphing
argues that the practice of con- whereby the author is general- Data. Wadsworth
ducting significance tests should izing. Generalizations and the Advanced Books, 1985
be abandoned. In extreme cases, present tense are best left in the
the p-values’ dominance brings conclusions section.
authors to forego describing the the tables and figures should have
effect they are studying, because Use CONSORT’s Outline the variables presented in the same
they emphasize the statistical
CONSORT is a consortium
order. An important exception is
significance to the exclusion of
organized for the purpose of
when ordering is used to commu-
other statistics.
standardizing research reports for
nicate different results.
There is a style representing
randomized controlled trials. The
good statistical principles that
use of the CONSORT guidelines
Eliminate Methods
is conciliatory between extreme
ensures important information is What you did to get the results
views regarding significance test-
not omitted from the research belongs in the methods section.
ing and provides the most concise
report. An example of one of the The details of the statistical mod-
message without loss of informa-
standards is the requirement for eling are considered methods in
tion. This style, shown in Example
standardized patient flow charts, most disciplines. Avoid reiterat-
6, uses the text to describe the
which describes what happens ing the methods in the results
general patterns in the data and
to the subject pool between ran- section. Reference to the meth-
parenthetically provides either the
domization and final follow-up. ods as an aid to orient the reader
p-value or a reference to a figure
Another important CONSORT can be acceptable when the study
that contains the p-values.
recommendation is to report con- is complex. Example 7 is adapted
fidence intervals for all parameter from The Scientist’s Handbook for
Example 6
estimates. Many of the guidelines Writing Papers and Dissertations.
The hypothesized factors were
can be applied or adapted to a
found to jointly predict sub-
variety of study designs. More
Example 7
stance use relapse (LR x2(3) =
information about CONSORT’s Salivary gland squashes
21, p<.001). Having a greater
recommendation can be found at probed with affinity-purified
proportion of abstaining
www.consort-statement.org. anit-75 antibodies showed
social supports increased the
the puffed regions of chromo-
odds of being in the abstain- Sequence Consistently
somes had 52% higher fluo-
ing category three times (OR
Consistently order the topics pre- rescence intensity (Figure 2).
= 4.14, CI: 1.43–11.98,Wald
sented in each section of the paper,
= 2.62, p = .009). Conversely,
as consistency makes reading easi- Statisticians often know the
the odds of remaining an
er. Consistency of order should be data better than anyone else on
abstainer were reduced by
carried out whenever there is rep- the research team. The value
two-thirds if they had inter-
etition. For instance, in a series of of their contribution can be
nalizing and externalizing
tables and figures that contain the increased through a thoughtfully
psychiatric disorders (OR =
same independent variables, all crafted communication style. n
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