in their distribution ranges. Invasive alien species are generalists and highly adaptable, and are therefore expected to cause even more harm under climate change conditions (Bellard et al. 2013; STDF 2013; Walther et al. 2009). In recognition of this high and increasing threat, the EU has responded with regional, national and dedicated legislation through EU Regulation 1143/2014 on Invasive Alien Species, which entered into force in 2015.


Furthermore, indicators on the impact of alien invasive species in the EU have been developed across a range of spatial scales and have been based on a range of measures. The EEA has provided a major contribution to this through the Streamlining European Biodiversity Indicators (SEBI 2010) project. Indicators include cumulative numbers of alien species since 1900; alien species that are of greatest threat to biodiversity; the impacts and abundance of alien species; awareness; and costs. Data come from the European Network on Invasive Alien Species (NOBANIS) database, which at that time included data for 11 Northern European countries (NOBANIS 2012).


58: Effects of climate change


Climatic thresholds for the survival or reproduction of individuals, often mediating demographic changes, vary across seasons and life-history stages (Garcia et al. 2014). Species responses encompass physiological, phenological, and biogeographical changes, and these may have implications for ecosystem functioning and structure (Bellard et al. 2012). At the species level, recorded impacts of climate change include changes in physiology, phenology and bionomics, geographical distribution, for example, species moving north or to higher elevations and interaction with other species (Kovats et al. 2014; Hannah 2011; Huntley 2007; Parmesan 2006; Theurillat and Guisan 2001). Briophyte communities in Arctic habitats in the pan-European region have been shown to lose productivity due to less abundant snow during winters (Elmendorf et al. 2012a, 2012b). For their phenology, many organism groups like butterflies are linked to specific (spring) temperatures, which initiate their activity (Stefanescu et al. 2003). In response to climate change, 46 out of 69 studied European bumblebee species are projected to experience range contractions by 2050


(Potts et al. 2015), and many species groups monitored in Europe already show range shifts towards the pole (Mason et al. 2015). A recent meta-analysis, however, suggests that altered species interactions in response to climate change may be more important than direct effects (Ockendon et al. 2014).


59: Biodiversity data gaps


Certain areas in particular suffer from biodiversity data gaps. Estimates of species richness in the Irano–Anatolian highlands or Central Asian mountains, for example, are most likely underestimates (Ficetola et al. 2013). Insufficient data are available for 23 per cent of the species classified under the European Red List assessment (2 250 species out of 9 735 assessed species) (IUCN 2015a), and 50 per cent of European cetaceans and turtles have not yet been assessed for EU Habitats Directive Article 17. Furthermore, among European marine species overall, 20 per cent of the species are data deficient (Nieto et al. 2015). For many species, detailed data on their distribution and population trends are sparse. Unequal coverage or availability of monitoring data leads to a spatial bias, with particularly sparse data for Eastern and South Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Temporal gaps in data prevent the detection and interpretation of changes and trends for species and populations, and thus critically limit biodiversity knowledge, for example, when evaluating the effectiveness of conservation measures. Significant gaps also exist in genetic data (Geijzendorffer et al. 2015), including for domesticated animals (FAO 2013). Reasons for data gaps vary between areas and taxa, and can be due to the inaccessibility of certain regions, such as in the Caucasus, lack of local or regional capacity, or taxonomic uncertainties (Bilz et al. 2011). Thus, an important future need will be to close biodiversity data and monitoring gaps across the pan-European region.


60: Wildlife management


Wildlife management is particularly challenging for large carnivores because they are iconic species, move across boundaries due to their large range, and come into conflict with humans. Nonetheless, there are signs of stabilizing and even increasing populations after decades of decrease or even extinction.


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