transition to a circular economy.


To stay within range of 2ºC–1.5ºC temperature increases and already foreseen impacts, strengthened government action at the national and subnational levels, as well as multistakeholder coalitions, are needed on mitigation and adaptation, including accounting for emission footprints. Adaptation priorities include: improved water management, notably with regard to coastal floods; growing crops suited for increased temperatures; and building green infrastructure to enhance resilience to extreme weather, particularly in urban areas.


Air quality is the largest health risk to the pan-European population, with disproportionate effects on children, the elderly and the poor. Over 500,000 premature deaths in the region were attributable to ambient air quality and 100,000 to indoor air quality in 2012. More than 95 per cent of the urban population are exposed to pollution above the World Health Organization guidelines. Excessive deposition of nitrogen continues to damage ecosystems. Lifestyles, consumption and transport patterns have the most influence on air quality in the region.


Many parts of the region have seen improvements in air quality over recent decades thanks to effective regulations that reduced pollutant emissions. Many of the sectors that impact on air quality also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Particulate matter and ozone are the most important pollutants contributing to adverse outdoor air quality.


The bodies under the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution and its protocols have been successful in connecting scientific evidence with policy actions. The available evidence supports further policy actions on integrated air quality and climate policies. Policies should also prioritize lifestyle changes and efficiency measures, reductions in emissions at their source and emerging risks, such as ozone and newly identified health effects. Research efforts are required to bridge the considerable knowledge gap on indoor air pollution.


Biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation continue apace, despite increased conservation and restoration efforts. The main regional pressures are from increased landuse change, particularly agricultural intensification, urbanization and habitat fragmentation by transport infrastructure. In Western and Central Europe, only 38.4 per cent of the original species abundance remains, while 77 per cent remains in the Russian Federation.


Full implementation of the European Union Natura 2000 network, in conjunction with the Emerald Network and the Pan-European Ecological Network, is needed. Together with increased synergies with other existing environmental policy instruments, this would alleviate pressures by providing protection for a broad range of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, habitats, species and landscapes of pan- European importance.


Integrating biodiversity and ecosystem considerations into all aspects of spatial planning would further enhance protection efforts, as would new regulations for land and soil protection. Ecosystem-based management approaches offer a cost-effective means to alleviate the multiple pressures on biodiversity, especially from food and forestry production, consumption and tourism.


Chemical pollution impacts on human health and ecosystems across the region, with hazardous chemicals of particular concern owing to their toxicity, shortcomings in their management and a lack of transboundary controls. Other priority concerns include endocrine disruptors in consumer products, hazardous substances in electronic and electrical products, environmentally persistent pharmaceuticals and nanomaterials.


Mercury pollution in the region is still significant, and new emerging issues such as some toxic chemicals in consumer products pose challenges yet to be tackled. Heavy metals and persistent organic pollutant concentrations in air, sediment and soil have on average been reduced across the region, though hotspots remain. Parts of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia have legacy stockpiles of obsolete


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