LITERATURE UPDATE
interspecies transmission and genetic mixing and underscore the urgent need for more effective actions. Here, the authors examine the changing global epidemiology of human infections caused by avian influenza viruses over the past decade, including dramatic increases in both the number of reported infections in humans and the spectrum of avian influenza virus subtypes that have jumped to humans. They also discuss the use of advanced surveillance, diagnostic technologies, and state-of-the-art analysis methods for tracking emerging avian influenza viruses. They also outline an avian influenza virus-specific application of the One Health approach, integrating enhanced surveillance, tightened biosecurity, targeted vaccination, timely precautions, and timely clinical management, and fostering global collaboration to control the threats of avian influenza viruses.
Nanomaterial-based biosensors for avian influenza virus: A new way forward Wei-Wen Hsiao W, Fadhilah G, Lee CC et al. Talanta. 2023 Dec 1; 265: 124892. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124892.
Avian influenza virus (AIV) is a zoonotic virus that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Although human infections are rare, the virus has a high mortality rate when contracted. Appropriate detection methods are thus crucial for combatting this pathogen. There is a growing demand for rapid, selective and accurate methods of identifying the virus. Numerous biosensors have been designed and commercialised to detect AIV. However, they all have considerable shortcomings. Nanotechnology offers a new way forward. Nanomaterials produce more eco-friendly, rapid and portable diagnostic systems. They also exhibit high sensitivity and selectivity while achieving a low detection limit (LOD). This paper reviews state-of-the-art nanomaterial-based biosensors for AIV detection, such as those composed of quantum dots, gold, silver, carbon, silica, nanodiamond and other nanoparticles. It also offers insight into potential trial protocols for creating more effective methods of identifying AIV and discusses key issues associated with developing nanomaterial-based biosensors.
Nanomaterials-based immunosensors for avian influenza virus detection Mollarasouli F, Bahrani S, Amrollahimiyandeh Y, Paimard G. Talanta. 2024 Nov 1; 279: 126591. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126591.
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Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are capable of infecting a considerable proportion of the world’s population each year, leading to severe epidemics with high rates of morbidity and mortality. The methods now used to diagnose influenza virus A include the Western blot test (WB), haemagglutination inhibition (HI), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). But because of their labour- intensiveness, lengthy procedures, need for costly equipment, and inexperienced staff, these approaches are considered inappropriate. This review elucidates the recent advancements in the field of avian influenza detection through the utilisation of nanomaterials-based immunosensors between 2014 and 2024. The classification of detection techniques has been taken into account to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature. The review encompasses a detailed illustration of the commonly employed detection mechanisms in immunosensors, namely, colorimetry, fluorescence assay, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), surface- enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), electrochemical detection, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) piezoelectric, and field-effect transistor (FET). Furthermore, the challenges and future prospects for the immunosensors have been deliberated upon. This review aims to enhance the understanding of immunosensors-based sensing platforms for virus detection and to stimulate the development of novel immunosensors by providing novel ideas and inspirations. Therefore, the aim is to provide updated information about biosensors, as a recent detection technique of influenza with its details regarding the various types of biosensors, which can be used for this review.
Avian Influenza Virus Detection and Quantitation by Real-Time RT-PC. Spackman E. Methods Mol Biol. 2020; 2123: 137–48. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716- 0346-8_11.
Real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) has been used for avian influenza virus (AIV) detection since the early 2000s. This method has been applied to surveillance, outbreaks and research. Some of the advantages of rRT-PCR are high sensitivity, high specificity, rapid time to result, scalability, cost, and its inherently quantitative nature. Furthermore, rRT- PCR can be used with numerous sample types and is less expensive than virus isolation in chicken embryos, and since infectious virus is inactivated early during processing, biosafety and biosecurity are also easier to maintain. However, the high
genetic variability of AIV may decrease sensitivity and increases the chances of a false-negative result with novel strains. This chapter will provide an overview of the USDA-validated rRT-PCR procedure for the detection of type A influenza.
Diagnostic Assays for Avian Influenza Virus Surveillance and Monitoring in Poultry
Azeem S, Yoon KJ. Viruses. 2025 Feb 6; 17 (2): 228. doi: 10.3390/v17020228.
Diagnostic testing plays a key role in a surveillance programme as diagnostic testing aims to accurately determine the infection or disease status of an individual animal. Diagnostic assays for avian influenza virus (AIV) can be categorised into four broad types: tests for detecting the virus, its antigen, its genomic material, and antibodies to the virus. Virus characterisation almost always follows virus detection. The present article surveys the current literature on the goals, principles, test performance, advantages, and disadvantages of these diagnostic assays. Virus isolation can be achieved using embryonating eggs or cell cultures in a laboratory setting. Virus antigens can be detected by antigen-capturing immunoassays or tissue immunoassays. Viral RNA can be detected by PCR-based assays (gel-based reverse transcription- polymerase chain reaction [RT-PCR], or probe or SYBR Green-based real-time RT-PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification, in situ hybridisation, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Antibodies to AIV can be detected by ELISA, agar gel immunodiffusion, haemagglutination inhibition, and microneutralisation. Avian influenza virus can be characterised by haemagglutination inhibition, neuraminidase inhibition, sequencing (dideoxynucleotide chain-termination sequencing, next-generation sequencing), genetic sequence-based pathotype prediction, and pathogenicity testing. Novel and variant AIVs can be recognised by DNA microarrays, electron microscopy, mass spectroscopy, and biological microelectromechanical systems. A variety of diagnostic tests are employed in AIV surveillance and monitoring. The choice of their use depends on the goal of testing (fit for purpose), the time of testing during the disease, the assay target, the sample matrix, assay performance, and the advantages and disadvantages of the assay. This article concludes with the authors’ perspective of the use of diagnostic assays in the surveillance and monitoring of AIV in poultry.
APRIL 2025
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