typical” (p. 5). Multiple-choice questions, matching exercis- es, true/false statements, short answers or fill-in items, and essay questions are all examples of formative assessment known as objective assessment. Portfolios and exhibitions, on the other hand, are examples of formative assessment known as authentic or performance assessment that mir- rors what happens in the real world when scientists, archi- tects, musicians, and others apply their discipline-based knowledge to solve authentic challenges. More recently, educators are engaged in yet another type of formal assess- ment known as blended assessment, which is a combina- tion of traditional and technology-based assessments, such as combining paper-and-pencil tasks with online tasks, and sometimes enriching the two with a peer assessment. Only when teachers use multiple strategies to gather information about what students understand or still might be struggling with can teachers may gain comprehensive understanding of the quality of teaching and learning that is happening in their classes for the purpose of developing mechanisms to improve their instructional offerings.


When to assess?


While most traditional curriculum designs propose an assessment at the end of the instructional sequence (e.g., what to teach-teach-assess), a somewhat radical approach to curriculum design known as backward design, advocates the reverse: One starts with identifying the desired results (e.g., goals, learning objectives, and/or learning outcomes), followed by determining acceptable evidence (e.g., a vari- ety of assessment tools), and ending by planning learning experiences and instruction (e.g., a variety of inductive and deductive learning experiences, classroom activities, etc.) (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). An important proposition of backward design, when it comes to assessment, is that assessment should involve a range of methods over a long period of time “because understanding develops as result of ongoing inquire and rethinking” and “the assessment of understanding should be thought of in terms of collection of evidence over time instead of an event--a single moment- in-time test at the end of instruction--as so oſten happens in current practices” (Wiggins & McTighe, p. 5). Assessment methods that are high in frequency and low in magnitude provide students not only with opportunities to uncover the degree to which they mastered certain intellectual or physical skills on a regular basis—so no fear from errors, no panic and no sweat. Moreover, frequent and low-stakes assessments provide students with additional opportuni- ties to apply what they know and can do in a situation that more closely mirrors real life, which renders assessment just another part of the learning process (Duke, 2013).


What to assess?


Over hundred years ago, the “Father of Modern Educa- tion”, Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer Heinrich Jean Pestalozzi (1746-1827), planted the seeds of “whole child education,” illuminated in his well-known “Tree H’s” motto that stands for: educating heads, hearts, and hands. Much later, during the 1950s and 1960s educational reforms, a group of experts in educational evaluation led by Benjamin Bloom developed a classification system of educational objectives known as the Tree Taxonomies of Educational Domains: Cognitive Taxonomy (“head” or thinking skills), Psychomotor Taxonomy (“hands” or phys- ical skills), and Affective Taxonomy (“heart” or emotional responses). Tese three taxonomies have helped educators to develop learning objectives and outcomes along with planning meaningful assessments for over 50 years. (For more information on each of the three taxonomies visit the Taxonomy link cited in reference list.)


Tables 1-31 are based on these three taxonomies of educa-


tional domains and shows guidelines for the development of instructional objectives that can be adapted to any subject, including music. As explained earlier, backward design proposes that assessments take second place in the learning sequence, right aſter development of learning goals, objec- tives, and outcomes, thus encouraging teachers to think of assessments as “inextricably related to the goals of instruc- tion” (Duke, p. 49).


Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain


Levels of Meaning Knowing


Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating Words to Be Used in Written Objectives


Students will identify, label, list, match, memorize, name, recognize…


Students will describe, differentiate, give examples, interpret, summarize…


Students will apply, organize, practice, transfer, calculate, generalize…


Students will analyze, categorize, contrast, detect, experiment, point out, subdivide…


Students will assess, conclude, criticize, evaluate, measure, rate, validate, synthesize…


Students will create, combine, integrate, modify, produce, propose, solve….


Simpson’s Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain


Levels of Skill Perception


Words to Be Used in Written Objectives Student will become aware of … (e.g., component


of playing skill or skill itself such as correct bow hold, appropriate left-hand shape, etc.) that is required for desirable performance.


Set


Student will make adjustments and develop readiness to perform the skill that involves certain set. (e.g., mental set, physical set, and emotional set)


Guided Response Mechanism Complex Overt Response Adaptation Origination 25


Student will perform the skill under the guidance of an instructor. (e.g., imitation and trial and error)


Student will display an appropriate playing and musical skills on habitual basis.


Student will perform with a smooth proficiency.


Student will exhibit an ability to change a skill or performance and make it more suitable.


Student will exhibit an ability to develop and use skill.


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