Figure 2: Accommodation linkages and tourist income distribution in Tanjong Piai, Malaysia Source: TPRG (2009). Note: RM=Ringgit Malaysia (1 RM=US$ 0.30)
be higher in urban and rural sectors (Table 2). This result is consistent with other studies for the country. For instance, the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC 2007) estimates that tourism contributes to a reduction in poverty of 3 per cent in Costa Rica (and 1 per cent in Nicaragua). From a site comparison perspective, Brenes et al. (2007) estimated the impact of Tamarindo (mass tourism destination) and La Fortuna (natural and adventure attractions destination) and found that average monthly wages in La Fortuna (US$ 437) were higher than in Tamarindo (US$ 392). Moreover, they estimated a 0.64 probability of income improvement for La Fortuna inhabitants when working in the tourism sector. The evidence indicates that tourism is contributing to poverty reduction in Costa Rica, with the sustainability approach of the country as a driver of living conditions improvement.
■ In Malaysia, using a value-chain analysis, TPRG (2009) finds that economic benefits received by local people account on average for 34 per cent of total income generated by tourism. The relatively high pro- poor income share, particularly in restaurants (Table 3), may reflect various public and private initiatives to employ or involve locals in tourism business operations.
3.4 Environmental benefits
There is increasing motivation from both the private and public sectors to invest in making tourism more sustainable. Although the availability of global investment data
specific to sustainable
currently not of a sufficient quantity to draw any robust conclusions, it is clear that there is an increased awareness of the need and value of conserving unique natural, social and cultural assets of destinations.
Private and public investment in tourism includes
infrastructure (roads, airports, national parks, private reserves, hospitality installations and other sites and facilities); environmental conservation (natural attractions, beaches, mountains, rivers, biodiversity, natural barriers and endemic species); education (labour-
National Urban Rural
With tourism income Without tourism income 17.69% 16.93% 18.73%
19.06% 18.40% 20.0%
Table 2: Impact of tourism on poverty rates in
Costa Rica, 2008 Source: Rojas (2009)
Share in tourism revenue
Accommodation and hotel meals Restaurants Retail
Tours and excursions Other
tourism is
88.4% 4.4% 3.7% 3.0% 0.5%
Share of PPI 7.3%
47.0% 27.0% 18.8% n.a
Table 3: Breakdown of tourism income and pro-
poor income (PPI) contribution in Malaysia Source: TPRG (2009)