Towards a green economy
and tourism are expected to account for a large share of emissions unless a major change in the emission trajectories is achieved (Peeters et al. 2010).
Water consumption While water use by tourism, on a global basis, is far less important than agriculture, industry, or urban domestic use, in some countries and regions, tourism can be the main factor in water consumption. In such areas, it can increase pressure on already diminished water resources and compete with other sectors as well as subsistence needs of local populations (Box 1). Tourism can also directly affect water quality, for example, through the discharge of untreated sewage or freshwater abstraction (Gössling 2010).
Global direct water consumption by international tourism (accommodation only) is estimated to be 1.3 km3
per year
(Gössling 2005). Available data suggests that direct water use in tourism varies between 100 and 2,000 litres per guest night, with a tendency for larger, resort-style hotels to use significantly more water than smaller, pension-like establishments or campsites. The main water-consuming factors are golf courses, irrigated gardens, swimming pools, spas, wellness facilities and guest rooms.
UNEP (2003) estimates that in the USA, tourism and recreation consume 946 million cubic metres of water per year, of which 60 per cent is linked to lodging (mostly spent on guest consumption, landscape and property management and laundry activities), and another 13 per cent is for foodservice. Total yearly water consumption
Impacts are also considerable for wastewater management, even in high-income countries. In the Mediterranean region, for instance, it is commonplace for hotels to discharge untreated sewage directly into the sea (WWF 2004), with 60 per cent of water used in tourism resulting in sewage in need of disposal (GFANC 1997). In the European Mediterranean, only 30 per cent of municipal wastewater from coastal towns receives any treatment before discharge. Anecdotal evidence suggests that this is also the case in many other countries outside the European Union (Gössling 2010).
6. Author’s estimation with data from AQUASTAT-FAO. Available at http://
www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/aquastat/dbase/index.stm.
Box 1: Water consumption for tourism and local communities
Tourism development is concentrated in coastal areas and on small islands, where potable water is typically scarce. This scarcity can be caused by either a physical absence of freshwater, or because the necessary infrastructure or resources are lacking. A tourism- thirsty industry can secure its water needs wherever it operates, although this can create situations of stark water inequity between tourists and neighbouring communities. Tourism’s water demands can even lead to the appropriation of supply to the detriment of local domestic and agricultural needs, caused by the overexploitation of aquifers and reservoirs and the lowering of groundwater tables.
In a popular resort area of one South Asian country, for example, privately-owned water tankers buy water from villages through local elites and transport it to supply nearby hotels. This leaves villagers with water supply to their communal standpipes for a
few hours a day only (Tourism Concern 2009 and 2010). Luxury resorts on an East African island are estimated to use up to 2,000 litres of water per tourist per day, almost 70 times more than the average daily domestic consumption of local people (Gössling and Hall 2006).
Golf tourism is rapidly expanding. An estimated 9.5 billion litres of water are used to irrigate the world’s golf courses per day, equivalent to the daily needs of 80 per cent of the global population. One Mediterranean island, where water is so scarce it must sometimes be shipped in, is planning to increase its golf courses from three to 17, with tourism cited as the principal driver. This will involve building over agricultural land and constructing several desalination plants to ensure continual supply (Tourism Concern 2009). Source: Tourism Concern (2010)
by tourism in Europe is estimated at 843 million cubic metres. Each tourist consumes 300 litres of freshwater per day on average, whereas luxury tourists can consume up to 880 litres. By comparison, average per capita residential consumption in Europe is estimated at 241 litres per day.6
Waste management Waste management is another increasing and well- recognised challenge in the industry. Every international tourist in Europe generates at least 1 kg of solid waste per day, and up to 2 kg/person/day for the USA (UNEP 2003). By comparison, CalRecovery and UNEP (2005) report total country waste generation, including industrial and other sources, for Austria (1.18 kg/person/day), Mexico (0.68 kg/person/day), India (0.4 kg/person/day) and the USA (2.3 kg/person/day).
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