Fig. 3. British Airways’ award-winning Club World flat-bed seat benefited from ergonomics input from Davis Associates, including sleep trials and all aspects of usability.


applicable at all stages in the project, but others might be appropriate only for one phase of the product development cycle.


A technique that is often used is Task Analysis, in which user actions are analysed to identify the information required at various points in the operation, as well as the opportunities for things to go wrong. Another commonly used technique is User Observation, which may be with new products, existing products and sometimes competitor products. With developments in computing power and software,


computer-based tools are now gaining in popularity both with ergonomists and non-specialists. For example, anthropometric models and three-dimensional manikins are available, though it should be noted that much work can be done with two- dimensional data, especially if 3D physical mock-ups are to be used. Davis Associates also uses Macromedia Director, a multimedia authoring tool for creating interactive demos and simulations. Davis says: “This is a powerful package that enables us to create on-screen products, systems or environments with which users can interact well before any real artefacts exist. We have used Macromedia Director to, for example, simulate fully functioning mobile phones, ticketing systems, control consoles and mass rapid transport systems”. To gain an understanding of how users feel about a product, service or interaction, cognitive mapping can be very


revealing. This identifies descriptive words that people use (for example, ‘strong’ or ‘weak’), then these terms are presented in later evaluations so that people can allocate a score for strength or weakness. Establishing how people feel about things can help in identifying latent needs, which are the needs that consumers are unaware that they have. Creating a new product or service to fulfil these latent needs can deliver a major commercial advantage because it places the company a step ahead of its competitors. Few people would cite ergonomics as a way of identifying opportunities for innovation in products and services, but this illustrates the potential offered by the science of how humans interact with objects and their surroundings. Typically an ergonomist will be called upon to improve usability or enhance a product, system, service or environment, but designers and design managers need to appreciate that good ergonomics can make a substantial difference to the business. Remember, though, that to maximise the benefits within the time and budget available, ergonomics should be considered as an integral part of the design process, right from the earliest stages, and not just as an afterthought. Davis concludes with this quote from the principal psychologist at the Health and Safety Executive: “Human factors is not like a coat of paint. It cannot be added on at the end.” l


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