the Kodály method, where a particular posi- tioning of the hand represents a particular pitch, might prove beneficial in develop- ing interval identification and sight singing abilities (see Choksy, et ah, 2001). Using a Dalcroze approach, you might focus on the pitch contour of a melody by having stu- dents move the contour with their bodies or draw the contour in the air with their arms (see Mead, 1994). Finally, allow students to freely move their bodies as they sing as a way to help them develop more expressive and/or supported singing.


Listening


While there is less research that has tested the effect of movement instruction on music listening, there is some evidence that it does positively impact listening skills. Sims (1986) reported that preschool chil- dren who participated in some movement experience with music were more attentive when listening to that music in comparison to those who only listened passively. An- other study found that children who moved while listening to music scored significantly better on a measure of form perception than did other students who followed a listening map without moving (Gromko & Poor- man, 1998). Giving children experiences moving spontaneously (i.e., freely) to mu- sic might improve their ability to represent that music using graphic notation (Fung & Gromko, 2001).


Ideas For The Classroom


Designing listening experiences that incorporate movement for students can be divided into two types: (a) directive move- ment experiences, those that are led by and designed by the teacher, and (b) creative movement experience, those that are generat- ed by students (Abril, 2011). An example of a directive movement experience would be having students copy your choreographed movements, while listening to Queen’s song, “Bicycle Race.” Another example would be to teach students a folk dance from one of the songs Alfred Reed used in his band piece, Armenian Dances. These experiences can focus students’ attention on certain as- pects of the music, from its expressivity to its historical roots to its form. Creative movements give students the


freedom to generate their own movements as they listen. For example, instead of, or in


TEMPO


addition to, having students follow or cre- ate visual maps to represent a section from Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, you might chal- lenge students to create a movement piece to represent the music they hear. The goal is not to create choreography, as much as it is to help students develop a deeper under- standing of the music they are listening to. Another example of creative movement is to give students one or two specific Faban ef- fort actions (dab, flick, punch, slash, glide, float, wring, press) and ask them to impro- vise movements inspired by those actions as they listen to music. For more information on movement and listening, see Kerchner (2014).


Concluding Thoughts


Jonathan, a twelve-year-old boy, said it best in an interview talking about his ex- periences in a school music program: “...1 can’t sit still long. Nobody should have to sit still when there’s music. It moves, and makes you move” (Campbell, p. 198). Jona- than’s insightful comment speaks volumes, and it is supported by research, which has consistently shown that humans (especially children) have a natural tendency, need, and desire to move to music. Patterns from the research also show that movement offers a window into children’s musical perceptions, improves their music competencies, and helps to develop deeper understanding. It does not seem to matter what specific ap- proach or method you use as long as you do incorporate some movement in music in- struction. Consider how movement can be added to your teaching, such that it helps to meet curricular objectives and goals, with the ultimate purpose of deepening students’ musical understanding, skill, and overall musicianship.


References


Abril, C. R. (2011). Music, movement, and learning. In R. Colwell & P. Webster (Eds.), MENC handbook of research in music learning (pp. 92-129). New York: Oxford University Press.


Abril, C. R. (2007). I have a voice but I just can’t sing: A narrative investigation of singing and social anxiety. Music Education Research, 9(1), 1-15.


Berger, L. M. (1999). The effects of Dacroze Eurhythmies instruction on selected music competencies of third- and fifth-grade general music students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of


54


Minnesota, Minneapolis.


Blesdell, D. S. (1991). A study of the effects of two types of movement instruction on the rhythm achievement and developmental rhythm aptitude of preschool children. (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 52/07,2452.


Boyle, J. D. (1970). The effect of prescribed rhythmical movements on the ability to read music at sight. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18(4), 307-318. Campbell, P. S. (2010). Songs in their heads (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.


Choksy, L., Abramson, R. M., Gillespie, A. E., Woods, D., & York, E (2001) Teaching music in the twenty-first century (2nd ed.). Supper Saddle River, N. J.: Prentice Hall.


Conway, C, Marshall, H., & Hartz, B. (2014). Movement instruction to facilitate beat competency in instrumental music. Music Educators Journal, 100(3), 61-66.


Croom, P. L. (1998). Effects of locomotor rhythm training activities on the ability of kindergarten students to synchronize non- locomotor movements to music. (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59/03, 763.


Crumpler, S. E. (1982). The effect of Dalcroze eurhythmies on the melodic musical growth of first grade students. (Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/08, 2587.


Dunne-Sousa, D. (1988). The effect of speech rhythm, melody, and movement on song identification and performance of preschool children. (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1989). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/08, 2140.


Ebie, B. D. (2004). The effects of verbal, vocally modeled, kinesthetic, and audio- visual treatment conditions on male and females middle-school vocal music students’ abilities to expressively sing melodies. Psychology of Music, 32(4), 405-417.


Fung, C, & Gromko, J. (2001). Effects of active versus passive listening on the quality of children’s invented notations and preferences for two pieces from an unfamiliar culture. Psychology of Music, 29, 2, 128-138.


Gromko, J. E., & Poorman, A. S. (1998). The effect of music training on preschoolers’ spatial-temporal task performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46, 2, 173- 1.


Jacques-Dalcroze, E. (1921). Rhythm, music and education. Trans. H. Rubinstein. London: Dalcroze Society.


Jordan, J. M. (1986). The effects of informal movement instruction derived from the


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