Cities Urban growth boundaries Land-use regulation Density regulation Density bonus Special planning powers Vehicle and traffic regulation Parking standards Car-free developments Minimum emission standards

Establish clear limits to any form of building development around cities to limit urban sprawl; create green corridors that protect existing ecosystems

Introduce zoning regulation that prioritises development of inner-city, previously developed (brownfield) land over greenfield development at city-wide level

Provide minimum rather than maximum density standards; establish clear density standards at city-wide level (e.g. Floor Area Ratios, FAR* nodes

Provide development bonuses that allow increased development rights (i.e. extra floor area with respect to standard planning regulations) for green projects that support city-wide and local sustainability

Establish urban development corporations or urban regeneration companies to promote and enable green projects

Regulate for vehicle types, emission standards, speed limits and road space allocation that favours green transport and especially green public transport

Provide maximum rather than minimum parking standards; reduce private car parking standards to a minimum (e.g. less than one car per household) especially in areas of high public transport accessibility

Provide planning incentives for car free developments in higher density areas with high public transport accessibility Regulate minimum carbon emission and energy efficiency standards at the local level for buildings and vehicles

Tab le 6: Selected planning and regulatory instruments * FAR is the most common density measure for planning purposes. It is calculated by adding all the area of residential and business floor space and dividing it by the entire area of the development site.

and broad and conceptual spatial ideas” as opposed to traditional master planning with detailed spatial designs. A central component of strategic planning is the linking-up of spatial and infrastructure plans and the promotion of public transport to drive urban compaction and accessibility. Many cities, particularly in Western Europe, have adopted strategic planning while some, including Johannesburg are turning to new planning-regulatory frameworks that serve as a basis for new approaches.

For city governments to insist on planning reform is also crucial for implementing the actions required to address the global environmental crisis. Playing those roles requires a much greater capacity for effectual planning. The planning implied is a clinical engagement with the urban form and flows of the city to identify how best to sequence, coordinate and integrate various infrastructure investments that will set the long-term course for urban efficiency, competitiveness and inclusivity.

The examples cited in previous sections of this chapter suggest that the most effective green city planning strategies have a direct impact on the shape and size of a city and its metropolitan hinterland. Reusing existing urban land while restricting urban sprawl and peripheralisation is central to the creation of sustainable urban environments, especially when retrofitting mature cities with previously developed industrial land. Increasing and maintaining urban density levels is desirable but can only be successful if associated with other services, such as high quality public transport and public space. Urban design and public space standards and a polycentric urban structure that encourages mixed-use developments

and varying densities with peaks around nodes supported by public transport are essential. To ensure environmental sustainability, there should be a policy bias against greenfield development in mature or recently established cities, until all available urban land is developed at appropriate densities. While a wide range of planning and regulatory tools exist that can be of particular relevance to the implementation of green cities, Table 6 summarises some of the most effective instruments that have brought about sustainable change in examples reviewed in this chapter.

5.5 Information, awareness and civic engagement

Effective planning and governance across different administrative levels requires high-quality information to raise awareness amongst urban residents to promote behaviour change. In addition, given that cities contain large consumer markets which are potentially valuable to producers of green goods and services, information is also an essential tool to influence consumer choice. But consumer preferences, in developed and developing nations, are not always green. For example, very dense urban development is not always popular in many parts of the UK and Europe (Cheshire 2008) and the North American propensity for suburbanisation is well documented.

At the same time, information and active communication on the potential benefits of greener lifestyles in cities can enable consumers to make more informed decisions. For example, in Munich new residents are given an information package on green mobility opportunities. Using such tools can also impact on the behaviour of businesses as the Indian city of Surat, one of Gujarat’s

481 ) in support of compact city development with a hierarchy of higher density, mixed-use clusters around public transport