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Towards a green economy

per cent and 3.3 per cent of GDP in Japan and Peru respectively, it represents 7.7 per cent and 10.9 per cent of GDP in South Africa and Spain respectively (UNWTO 2010c; WTTC 2010b). Regarding employment, the tourism industry contributes with 2.8 per cent, 3.1 per cent, 6.9 per cent and 11.8 per cent of total employment for the same countries (UNWTO 2010c; WTTC 2010b); in terms of investment, it accounts for 5.8 per cent, 9.9 per cent, 13 per cent, and 13.8 per cent of total investment respectively (WTTC 2010 and 2010b).7

Proportionately, tourism will grow faster in less developed countries than in developed economies in the next ten years. Destinations in emerging economies receive 47 per cent of worldwide international tourist arrivals and US$ 306 billion in international tourism receipts (36 per cent of the global total). Moreover, growth in the decade since 2000 has been most marked in emerging economies (58.8 per cent). Market share has also grown more significantly in emerging economies (from 38.1 per cent in 2000 to 46.9 per cent in 2009). Recent trends and forecasts point to a spreading of tourism to new destinations, largely in developing countries, where there is outstanding potential to support development goals, and where new environmental and cultural attributes can make an important contribution to more sustainable tourism destinations (UNWTO 2010b).

Changing consumer patterns Tourist choices are increasingly influenced by sustainability considerations. For instance, in 2007 TripAdvisor surveyed travellers worldwide and 38 per cent said that environmentally-friendly tourism was a consideration when travelling, 38 per cent had stayed at an environmentally-friendly hotel and 9 per cent specifically sought such hotels, while 34 per cent were willing to pay more to stay in environmentally-friendly hotels (Pollock 2007). Center on Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (CESD) and International Ecotourism Society (TIES) (2005) found that a majority of international tourists are interested in the social, cultural and environmental issues relevant to the destinations they visit and are interested in patronising hotels that are committed to protecting the local environment. Increasingly, they view local environmental and social stewardship as a responsibility of the businesses they support. Choice experiments conducted in Uganda conclude that biodiversity attributes increase the willingness to visit tourism attractions, independently of other factors (Naidoo and Adamowickz 2005). Research also indicates that consumers are concerned about the local environments of their travel destinations and are willing to spend more on their holidays if they are assured that workers in the sector are guaranteed ethical labour conditions in the places they are visiting (ILO 2010b). On

7. See Annex 1 for an indication of the economic dimension of tourism in a country sample.

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the other hand, Rheem (2009) argues that less than a third of American travellers indicate a willingness to pay some sort of pre mium for green travel, higher prices (cost premium) being seen as a demand barrier for 67 per cent of respondents.

Traditional mass tourism such as “sun-and-sand” resorts has reached a steady growth stage. In contrast, ecotourism, nature, heritage, cultural and soft adventure tourism, as well as sub-sectors such as rural and community tourism are taking the lead in tourism markets and are predicted to grow most rapidly over the next two decades. It is estimated that global spending on ecotourism is increasing at a higher rate than the industry-wide average growth. Nature-based tourism is an important economic component of the entire tourism market, including 75 per cent of Australia’s international tourism, while 42 per cent of European recreational tourists in 2000. In 2006, nature tourists contributed US$ 122.3 billion to the USA’s tourism market (UNWTO 2010d). About 14 per cent of international visitors to South Africa in 1997 engaged in an “adventure activity” during their stay (Travel to South Africa n.d.). Of the 826,000 tourists to Kenya in 1993, 23 per cent visited national parks and reserves for wildlife safari tourism (Sindiga 1995). In 1993, the Asia-Pacific region alone reported 10 per cent of tourism revenue came from ecotourism activities (Dalem 2002).

There is empirical evidence that tourists seeking environmental and culturally differentiated destinations are willing to pay more for this experience. Inman et al. (2002) estimate this to be between 25 per cent and 40 per cent. The World Economic Forum (WEF) (2009) estimates that 6 per cent of the total number of international tourists pay extra for sustainable tourism options and 34 per cent would be willing to pay extra for them. One third to one half of international tourists (weighted toward the USA) surveyed in a CESD and TIES (2005) study said they were willing to pay more to companies that benefit local communities and conservation. Research by SNV (2009) records two studies where 52 per cent of respondents in a UK survey would be more likely to book a holiday with a company that had a written code to guarantee good working conditions, protect the environment and support local charities, while some 58.5 million US travellers would pay more to use travel companies that strive to protect and preserve the environment.

Wells (1997) presents a survey of nature-tourism willingness to pay (WTP) studies and shows that, in almost all cases, consumer surplus (private value of benefits from nature tourism) is higher than collected fees from tourists. In other words, the value of ecosystems for tourism is undervalued in many cases. For instance, Adamson (2001) estimates that 50 per cent or more of the economic value

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