Knowledge Gaps
The perception of the downstream majority is of the precipitation. At higher altitudes, precipitation is in the
mountains as a dependable source of water supply form of snow and ice. According to some estimates,
for the plains. But the Himalayan waters are also the the fl ow in large monsoon-fed rivers in the east, such
lifeblood of human settlements scattered in the mountains as the Yangtse, Brahmaputra, and Ganges carries only
themselves, whose people rely on the annual snowfall 18%, 12%, and 9% of glacier melt respectively. In
and the water in small springs and streams for survival comparison, the Indus in the Hindu Kush and western
and economic activities. Himalayas carries about 50% glacier melt (Eriksson et
al. 2009).
Hydrological ‘Black Boxes’
Although the water that emerges from the Himalayas is
In spite of their tremendous importance as sources of critical for meeting the needs of a very large population,
freshwater for all other physiographic regions in basins, scientifi c knowledge on it is not good. Information
knowledge of the eco-hydrology of the mountain areas is further complicated by the practice, common in
is much more limited, less reliable, and less precise many parts of the region, of keeping river fl ow data
than for the plains. The mountains are characterised confi dential. The lack of data is a great obstacle to
by great climatic variability, with climatic conditions research on the eco-hydrology of the HKH rivers, and on
varying considerably within small spatial distances. subsequent policy analysis to guide their informed use.
Micro-climatic conditions vary extensively based on Suggestions for bridging the knowledge gap as quickly
aspect, altitude, direction of moisture-bearing winds, as possible have been made repeatedly by mountain
hours of exposure to sunlight, and other factors, scholars (Messerli 2009) but very little progress has
thus the WMO has recommended a much denser been made.
network of observatories for mountain areas to obtain
representative hydro-meteorological data. The climatic
Global warming, climate justice and the
diversity, compounded by other characteristics such
mountains
as inaccessibility and structural fragility, has made the
systematic collection of hydro-meteorological information
The impacts of global warming and climate change
on the mountains of the world have been reported
and predicted in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of
“WMO has recommended
the IPCC (2007). The people of the Himalayas have
very little responsibility for the historical accumulation
a much denser network of
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere that
observatories for mountain
is causing anthropogenic global warming. However,
they are facing the enormous negative impact of such
areas” changes, which poses a challenge to climate justice at
the global level. In addition, predictions of the impacts
with minimal spatial density very diffi cult, hazard-prone,
of global warming and related climate change are
and expensive. Thus, development of eco-hydrological
based on a series of modelling exercises that have
knowledge about the waters of the mountains has been
inbuilt uncertainties. The stages of modelling that connect
very slow, or in some cases non-existent. This gap in
possible scenarios of GHG emission with those of
the scientifi c knowledge of the mountains has led to
precipitation and run-off need refi ning, especially for
them being described as the “blackest of black boxes in
application in the mountains. There are very large gaps
the global hydrological cycle” (Bandyopadhyay et al.
in the knowledge needed to link scientifi c uncertainties
1997:131).
with the practical identifi cation of risks and generation of
adaptation strategies.
The Hindu Kush-Himalayas represent a signifi cant
barrier to atmospheric circulation and exert a strong
The case of the mountain regions for compensation and
infl uence on the spatial distribution of precipitation over
the provision of fi nancial support for early adaptation
the continent. Mawsinram in the state of Meghalaya in
measures should be part of the debate around global
North East India, receives a staggering average annual
climate justice. The negative impacts the mountains are
rainfall of about 11,600 mm; while parts of the Tibetan
facing has not been voiced in a signifi cant way, when
Plateau, across the crest line of the Himalayas, may get
compared to the highly visible global campaign in Kyoto
as little as 150 mm. The precipitation in the Hindu Kush
and Bali by the group of small island states. As Posner
and the western Himalayas is caused by the westerlies;
and Sunstein (2009) have stressed, “Climate change
they do not receive much of the summer monsoon
raises diffi cult issues of justice, particularly with respect to
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