Left: irector General Rafael Mariano Grossi recently said he sees Iranian willingness to re-engage with the international agency


Efforts to restrict nuclear access Eslami emphasised the significant progress in nuclear technology development despite numerous obstacles, particularly international efforts to block Iran’s access to advanced technologies. These have included several direct attacks on its nuclear facilities that have been attributed to Israel. These include the apparent cyberattack at the electricity distribution network of Shahid Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan uranium enrichment centre in Natanz in 2021 causing loss of power in the area and a fire that reportedly damaged a number of centrifuges. In 2009, the Stuxnet computer virus, thought to have been developed by the USA and Israel, was also used to target industrial control systems at the Natanz facility, reportedly destroying almost one-fifth of Iran’s nuclear centrifuges, and an explosion in July 2020 which destroyed Iran’s centrifuge assembly facility. As a result of decades of sanctions and direct attacks on


its nuclear programme, most of Iran’s key nuclear facilities have been constructed deep underground. This is just one of the factors complicating any plan to attack these sites. Nonetheless, the construction of the Bushehr NPP


illustrates the impact of the years of sanctions on Iran’s nuclear programme. In 1975, German Kraftwerk Union (KWU), a joint venture of Siemens AG and AEG-Telefunken and work began the same year. The two 1,196 MWe reactors were referenced to unit B of Germany’s Biblis NPP. Following the Islamic revolution, which led to a crisis in Iran’s relations with the West and the imposition of sanctions, KWU withdrew from the project with the reactor 50% and 85% complete. Shortly afterwards, Iraq invaded Iran and the reactors were damaged by multiple Iraqi air strikes. From the mid-1980s, Iran asked several nuclear suppliers


about completing unit 1, without success. Then, in 1992, Russia and Iran signed an agreement to continue the construction of the station. The project challenging in view of continued sanctions and in terms of technology which involved integrating German and Russian technology. German engineers had left behind a total of 80,000 pieces of equipment and structural elements, with little technical documentation. The West German government refused to grant Siemens (KWU) an export licence for the undelivered components held in storage. Unit 1 was finally connected to the grid in September


2011 and in 2014, a contract was signed for the construction of the second and third units with VVER-1000 reactors. Construction of unit 2 began in 2019 and Rosatom Director General Alexei Likhachev recently told the Russia-1 channel that installation of the melt trap would be completed by


the end of 2024. He added that work was underway on both units 2&3. Fuel for the Tehran Research Reactor (TRR) was also


impacted by the sanctions. After the Iranian Revolution, the US cut off the supply of highly enriched uranium (HEU) fuel for the TRR, which forced the reactor to be shut down for a number of years. The TRR core was converted to use low enriched uranium (LEU) fuel in 1993, which was initially supplied by Argentina. In 2009 the TRR was expected to run out of fuel within the following few years and asked the IAEA to facilitate supplies. Various schemes were drawn up but never implemented, after which Iran began its own enrichment programme to provide fuel for the TRR. Development of its already sophisticated nuclear programme continued.


Iranian nuclear development The commercial launch of Bushehr unit 2 is planned for 2029 while first concrete for unit 3 should take place before the end of the year. To achieve the goal of 20 GW of nuclear power by 2040 sites are being selected for several more stations. AEOI has already announced the start of work a new four-unit NPP at Sirik in the southern coastal province of Hormozgan. As to the 5 MW pool-type TRR, new areas of application


have been developed including staining precious stones, neutron visualisation, as well as testing various types of nuclear fuel. TRR has been operating since 1967 for basic research and radioisotope production. To replace this reactor, starting in 2022, a new 10 MW research reactor, IRR10, has been built in Isfahan to test fuel and produce radioisotopes. It will be the basis for an international nuclear science and technology training centre. Iran’s research reactors are also used for medicine,


pest control, radiation exposure, disinfection and food safety. Currently, there are six radiation plants and six more are being built to reduce 30% of agricultural losses and increase food safety. Among other applications of radiation technologies is the plant breeding department that develops cotton, soy, rice, tangerines and ornamental plants, as well as new organic fertilisers and the use of the sterile insect methods of pest control. AEOI also described development of the nuclear fuel


cycle. Currently, Iran has uranium mining facilities in Hoshuomi, Narigan and Saganda, as well as the Ardakan Yellow Kek Plant and the Sagand Yellow Kick Patching Plant. In the next five years, it is planned to develop and manufacture fuel for research reactors in Tehran, Isfahan,


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