UNIT A understanding academic convention


how can extra meaning be communicated?


There are many ways to communicate your meaning in speech without using language (e.g., body language). Obviously, in writing, these techniques are not available. This means that your writing has to be as specific and clear as possible. In the example below, the writer has to use particular words (surprisingly) and punctuation (an exclamation mark – !) to do the same job as pointing a finger for emphasis.


Speaking: Loads of people still can’t write [points finger].


Writing: It is an expertise which, surprisingly, many people still do not possess. This is true even in the 21st century!


how can specific emphasis be created?


In speech, there are a range of effects by which we can indicate emphaSiS. These include: • volume (e.g., soft/loud) • pitch/tone (e.g., rising/falling) • tempo (e.g., slowly/quickly)


Speech


Voice gets louder Tone rises


Pitch/voice drops Shorter pause Longer pause


Writing !


?


( ) or … ,


. or ;


In writing, we have to use punctuation to perform the same role. A brief comparison of the two media is presented in the table. The example below is from the text. Speaking:… [volume drops] usually from our mums and dads … Writing: (usually from our parents).


is variety possible?


Spoken language varies greatly from region to region. Indeed, two speakers of the same language may find it very difficult to understand each other. To take the example of the word about: its written form does not change, but it can be said in different ways. For example, someone from London would typically pronounce the word as /ə'baυt/ (to rhyme with ‘shout’); a Glaswegian might pronounce it /əbut/ (to rhyme with ‘flute’). Writing, on the other hand, is more standardized. Different types of English (e.g., american engliSh and britiSh engliSh) only have very small differences in spelling.


how do you interact with the audience?


When speaking, we almost always know who we are speaking to. In writing, however, our words might be read by anyone. Our audience, therefore, has to be considered more carefully beforehand, and vagueneSS and ambiguity must be avoided. In addition, when writing you only have one opportunity to make yourself understood, whereas in speaking you can explain yourself as many times as necessary. Here, the speaker is able to rephrase what they have just said, so that the other person can understand.


Speaking: [intonation rises] Understand? Let me put it another way. can you change what you said?


Once something has been said, it has been said. It cannot be ‘deleted’ (though of course it can be clarified). In writing, texts can be edited and redrafted as often as necessary. In this example, the speaker tries twice to pronounce this difficult word correctly. When writing, however, he or she can look the word up in a dictionary, or use spellcheck, to get it right first time.


Speaking: It is … an expar- expertise …


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