ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTATION
regulation. Bio-LNG is continuing to gain momentum as LNG infrastructure continues to expand. It is made by anaerobic digestion of organic material, such as agricultural waste, food waste, and sewage sludge, making it renewable and sustainable. Moreover, the production of bio-LNG is deemed “carbon-neutral” and is chemically identical to regular LNG and is therefore compatible with LNG engines and infrastructure. The need for minimal reductions essentially makes LNG a “drop-in alternative” and is a huge advancement for the shipping industry considering its increased commercial use.
methanol. Bio-methanol, also referred to as green methanol, is produced from biomass (agricultural waste, biogas) or renewable resources instead of fossil fuels. Thus, the key difference from conventional methanol is that bio-methanol is carbon-neutral or low-carbon depending on the method of production.
LNG is primarily composed of methane, with small amounts of ethane, propane, and traces of other hydrocarbons.
on LNG. The Wärtsilä 46TS-DF is equipped with ‘NextDF Technology’, an enhancement in combustion that significantly reduces methane slip. Based on controlled tests during engine development, the engine can limit methane emissions to below 1.4% across all load points, capable of reaching 1.1% across a wide operating range. These numbers are almost a third of the 3.1% maximum methane threshold enforced by the IMO and FuelEU Maritime for Otto-cycle four-stroke dual-fuel engines. The system incorporates in-cylinder pressure sensors to monitor each occurrence of combustion, allowing feedback that adjusts injection timing and the mixture of air/fuel to reduce pockets of unburned methane, or methane slip. NextDF engines also operatae with a higher air-fuel ratio, lowering peak combustion temperatures that helps reduce nitrogen oxide as well [11]. Overall, NextDF’s combustion control leads to optimizations in engine performance and reduced nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide emissions. In fact, the first installation of the Wärtsilä 46TS-DF is planned for the MSC World Asia cruise ship, which is expected to enter operation in 2026 [6]. Figure 4 shows an image of the engine:
Subsequently, the First Bio-LNG Plant in the Netherlands has been in operation since late 2024, particularly focused on maritime applications. Located in Wilp, Gelderland, the facility was a collaboration project between Nordsol, Attero, and Titan Clean Fuels, recognized as FirstBio2Shipping. An estimated 2,400 tons of bio-LNG from biogas are produced annually and then distributed to bunkers by customers such as Titan. Still, this is a relatively small number compared to global marine fuel demand, ranging in millions of tons. Additionally, distribution is geographically limited due to a lack of infrastructure in ports, such as specialized cryogenic tanks, pipelines, and safety precautions. Vessels functioning on bio-LNG require larger tanks as well due to their less energy density compared to heavy fuel oil and marine gas oil. The annual greenhouse gas emissions from the production of bio-LNG at this site were reduced by 92% compared to MGO and HFO. This is only claimed to be achievable under compliance with Article 5 and Annex III of Regulation (EU) 2023/1805. Article 5 sets strict sustainability criteria and greenhouse gas saving requirements for renewable fuels, including sourcing feedstock responsibly and minimizing lifecycle emissions. Annex III ensures that these criteria are verified and certified. By meeting these requirements, the FirstBio2Shipping plant demonstrates that bio-LNG can scale sustainably for maritime applications, offering a practical alternative to conventional fuels while aligning with EU decarbonization goals [12]. Ultimately, recent advancements in LNG-fuel technology including dual-fuel engines and the reduction of methane slip marks tangible progress towards decarbonization—not only are carbon emissions trending down but supports that alternative fuels can be integrated into shipping operations.
Methanol Figure 4: An image of the Wärtsilä 46TS-DF dual-fuel engine [6].
The rapid advancements in LNG-tailored engine technologies, aimed to lower both greenhouse gas emissions and methane slip, and active the deployment in commercial marine operations demonstrate the sector’s committed transition towards cleaner propulsion solutions.
In addition to innovative emission-reducing LNG dual-engines, the fuel itself has been revolutionized. Mentioned earlier, LNG’s role as a ‘bridge’ fuel to renewable energy is increasingly prevalent with widespread adaptations, especially following the carbon emission restrictions implemented by the European Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the FuelEU Maritime
Methanol has been recognized as a viable alternative shipping fuel since 2016. Not only is it recognized for being more environmentally friendly with lower emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, in addition to the synthesis of bio-methanol from decomposing matter, it proves as a cost-effective solution. Now, a major trade off in the usage of methanol is its significantly lower price, being 38.6% cheaper per metric ton compared to diesel; however, annual fuel costs increase by 28.16% due to methanol being less energy dense, requiring a 28% reduction in ship speed to keep consistent cost of fuel [13]. Practices like reducing ship speed or “slow steaming” can counteract the higher annual fuel costs by reducing fuel consumption, but this comes at the expense of fewer trips and additional operational and miscellaneous costs [13]. Nevertheless, if methanol propulsion systems become a primary source of fuel, there are significant economic benefits in terms of investment for infrastructure compared to LNG due to factors such as specialized equipment, such as cryogenic storages and pumps, and extensive safety systems.
These factors, especially the proposed environmental benefits, have prompted advancements in new ship designs and bunkering infrastructure. Specifically, in July of 2023, Maersk, one of the world’s largest container shipping companies, and Hong Lam Marine Pte Ltd., a leading operator of coastal vessels in Southeast Asia, successfully refueled a Maersk container vessel in the first-ever ship-containership methanol bunkering procedure. Further, this procedure was completed with bio-
The ship was refueled with an estimated 300 metric tons of bio- methanol, delivered by Hong Lam’s MT Agility tanker. This new vehicle was also successfully refueled by bio-methanol stored at Vopak Terminals; however, no public data regarding performance and emissions data was released [14]. Following this, container shipper company X-Press Feeders carried out its inaugural bio- methanol at the port of Singapore in 2024, follows the company’s reception of fourteen dual-fuel methanol-ready vehicles during May. This aligns with the company’s goals of using more methanol to reduce carbon emissions by 20% before 2030, and by 100% by 2050. These recent accomplishments not only demonstrate successful pilot operations but also represent the step towards operational scaling of methanol-fueled shipping; to conduct large-scale bunkering shows the advancements of methanol fueling logistics and port compatibility [15]. In conjunction with the newly developed engines for LNG, methanol’s increasing prevalence is being demonstrated by new dual-propulsion engines catered to methanol are being released.
Hydrogen
Although studied for roughly half a millennium, hydrogen has only been developed and scaled up for maritime applications in recent years. Viewed as one of the most likely fuels to be used in the future, hydrogen, especially ‘green hydrogen,’ perfectly aligns with future goals of the maritime industry and policy-enacting organizations such as the IMO. As context, green hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water using renewable electricity (wind or solar power), producing oxygen as the only byproduct. Compared to hydrogen, which is usually produced from the partial combustion of methane, green hydrogen serves as a carbon-free alternative. Additionally, with the combination of hydrogen fuel cells, hydrogen can be a fuel source that generates no emissions (shown below) with byproducts of only heat, water, and electricity [16]. As marine fuel, green hydrogen supports carbon-neutral fuel cells and propulsion systems; however, like all other non-conventional fuels, challenges arise with insufficient storage systems and infrastructure. Shown in Figure 5 is a diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell.
Figure 5: An adapted image of a schematic diagram of a hydrogen fuel cell [17].
Concluding in early 2024, a five-year collaboration between Bay Area Air Quality Management District and SWITCH Maritime produced Sea Change, the first U.S. hydrogen fuel cell-powered passenger ferry. This pioneering vessel demonstrates the viability of zero-emission technology for maritime applications, such as freight transportation and government operations. Thomas Hall, spokesman of the ferry service, commented on its first passenger cruise. He claimed that the ship performed as described and drew excitement from the community. A drawback he mentioned was the lack of fueling providers which only provided gray hydrogen (hydrogen produced from natural gas, like methane), not renewable green hydrogen [18]. After demonstrations of passenger service and regulatory approval (Certificate of Inspection) from the U.S. Coast Guard, the project began commercial passenger service on July 19, 2024, in the Francisco Bay Area [1]. Ultimately, this project sets a powerful precedent for the future of marine fuels. Sea Change has proved the commercial feasibility of a recently developed fuel and validates the possibility of hydrogen bunkers through its operation and refueling. Figure 6 is an image of Sea Change.
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