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suggestions for the profession. My hope is that these findings will assist middle school choral educators in reconceptualiz- ing how they acknowledge boys’ psychological needs when creating classroom spaces that empower a sense of belonging and success.


Self-Determination Teory


It is important to begin this literature review with a brief summary of Self-Determination Teory. SDT examines human motivation and personality by investigating the relationship between inherent growth tendencies, innate psychological needs, and a unified sense of self (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Evans, 2015). Te propensity toward such growth and sense of self is supported through the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Evans, 2015). Te need for competence relates to the desire to be effective in one’s skills, abilities and interactions in the social environment (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Elliot, McGregor, & Trash, 2004; Evans, 2015). Te need for relatedness refers to the desire to connect with others in mutually beneficial ways that foster feelings of belongingness and acceptance (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Evans, 2015). Te need for autonomy refers to the desire for volition and agency in the foundation of one’s behav- ior (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Evans, 2015). Self-Determination Teory in Classroom Settings


Research suggests that the perceived support of teachers and peers, the value of relatedness, is one of the leading motivating factors for students in classroom settings (Bourgeois & Boberg, 2016; McPherson & McCormick, 2000; Standage, et al., 2005; Wentzel, 1998). Student comfort and interest in learning is increased when the classroom environment is rooted in (a) strong elements of community, peer collaboration, and bond- ing; (b) effective instructional choices and delivery; and (c) the presence of a teacher who is deemed to have a positive teach- ing persona (Bourgeois & Boberg, 2016; McPherson & McCor- mick, 2000; Standage, et al., 2005; Wentzel, 1998).


Perception of individual skill and ability (competence) impacts student motivation in regard to (a) identity tied to instrument or voice part; (b) time spent studying or practicing; (c) how they approach high-stakes tests or performances; (d) levels of self-efficacy; and (e) how they emotionally and cognitively process successes and failures (Bourgeois & Boberg, 2016; McPherson & McCormick, 2000; Schatt, 2018). Teachers can help students navigate their perception of individual compe- tence through conversations and activities focused on (a) the concept of ability; (b) the relationship between ability and practice; (c) how to study, rehearse, or practice; and (d) the management of self-efficacy within moments of success and failure (Bourgeois & Boberg, 2016; McPherson & McCormick, 2000; Schatt, 2018).


Te empowerment of student agency (autonomy) in the class- room is suggested to be a leading intrinsic motivating factor for students. Student motivation is increased when students


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are provided the opportunity to (a) provide input; (b) make choices that impact their learning; and (c) engage in challenges that meet their individual level of development (Bourgeois & Boberg, 2016; McPherson & McCormick, 2000; Schatt, 2018; Standage, et al., 2005).


Middle School Choral Music


Research suggests that middle school choral students are best served through curriculum that is meaningful, scaffolded, and developmentally appropriate, both cognitively and physi- cally (Freer, 2008; McClung, 2006). Students experience an increased level of comfort and success in classrooms where teachers are intentional with their use of scaffolding language in sequential units of instruction (Freer, 2008). Students function best in settings where teachers establish fair and consistent classroom management that support curricular and community goals (Freer, 2008; McClung, 2006; Parker, 2016). Te cultivation and maintenance of safe and supportive learn- ing environments is necessary to empower students to freely explore their musical, social, and emotional selves (McClung, 2006; Parker, 2016). Pedagogical choices, such as repertoire selections, voice part assignments, and decisions regarding sin- gle-sex vs. mixed-sex ensembles, should be learner-centered, as they significantly impact knowledge growth and ease within the learning environment (Freer, 2008; McClung, 2006; Parker, 2016). Generally, ensembles separated by sex are considered most beneficial for students, but the importance of assigning male singers to vocal lines appropriate to their development is critical (McClung, 2006).


Males in Middle School Choral Music


Research suggests that middle school choral educators develop an understanding of the physical and cognitive shiſts that mid- dle school boys experience due to puberty. During puberty, the lowering of testosterone impacts the voice and may influence anxiety, depression, and attention problems (Casey, Jones & Sommerville, 2010; Dahl & Peper, 2013; Freer, 2012; Van Camp, 1987). Te act of singing, which at its core embodies a significant level of vulnerability and personal risk, may ignite further insecurities for boys and oſten manifests during voice change and repertoire exploration (Demorest, 2000; Dillworth, 2012; Leck, 2009). Te uncertain and uniquely public expe- rience of voice change, and boys’ lack of control within that process, can be severe and traumatic (Adler, 2002; Leck, 2009). Boys may elect against placing themselves in situations where they face this vulnerability or are perceived as ‘unmanly’ due to a high or cracking voice (Leck, 2009). In terms of repertoire, much of the current middle school choral canon elicits physi- cal strain on boys’ voices as well as their disinterest or discom- fort with song texts or themes (Demorest, 2000; Dillworth, 2012; Kennedy, 2002; Leck, 2009; Palkki, 2015; Ramsey, 2016). Teachers of male or male-identifying students should be vigi- lant in selecting repertoire and developing community practic- es that do not reinforce the gender binary, gender stereotypes, or narrow concepts of masculinity (Palkki, 2015).


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