In order to curb urban pollution several approaches have been attempted, including penalties through the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP). The PPP calls for corporate responsibility that requires the polluter to take economic and environmental responsibility for wastes. Examples of PPP application in the water sector in Africa are few, but include the payment for disposal of waste from tanneries in South Africa (McClean and others 2007).
MANAGING URBAN WATER
Most current urban water management strategies are targeted at supplying water, with priority given to quantity and quality. This requires water supply infrastructure such as piped systems for water and sewer reticulation, and the construction of storage reservoirs such as dams. Administrative units for the collection of revenues from the provision of water services also have to be set up.
Management of the water resources in Africa falls under various jurisdictions, including under the state, local authorities, catchment councils or the private sector. Management emphasis, ranges from making a profit to providing a social service. One example of water management is in South Africa,
where the aim is to generate income out of water provision as well as to provide a social service. This is accomplished through a combination of tariffs, cost recovery and free basic water under which every household receives the first six cubic metres per month for free, and the tariffs are gradually increased with greater usage (Government of South Africa 2005).
Not all urban dwellers have access to improved water and sanitation, hence there is an increase in informal entrepreneurs in the water and sanitation business to fill the gap in service provision by public sector water and sanitation systems. Many African governments are opposed to their activities due to their informal nature (Cudjoe and Okonski 2006).
Urban authorities use a mix of incentives and penalties to promote water use efficiency through recycling and reuse, as well as access to alternative sources of water such as rainwater harvesting.
URBAN WATER SECTOR REFORMS
In view of economic reforms, the urban water sector as managed by local authorities and central governments has seen unsustainable pricing, inequitable subsidies, inadequate public
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