many farmers now lack the water they need to irrigate their fields, especially in the drier valleys that lie in the rain shadow of high ranges (Orlove, 2009).

Living in high mountain regions like the Andes and the Hi- malayan region is a daily challenge as the remoteness com- bined with the harsh environment and limited infrastructure hampers mountain peoples’ economic development (IIED, 2009; Leduc, 2009). Mountain peoples’ livelihoods are large- ly based on agriculture, livestock raising, exploitation of natu- ral resources, small scale trade and migration (Leduc, 2008). People are used to seasonal and daily climate variability and variation in climate conditions at different altitudes and on slopes with different exposures (Rhoades, 2007). Traditional land-use systems have adapted to these variabilities through farming with complex soil and water management, a rich di- versity of crops and varieties, and planting schemes adapted to altitude (IIED, 2009). Livestock is moved to graze on the high summer pastures after the snow has melted (Mountain Partnership, 2002).

Since mountain peoples are highly dependent on these natu- ral resources to meet household needs, loss of biodiversity will have a great impact on people’s health, as well as their livelihoods (Leduc, 2009). For the Tibetan culture and liveli- hoods, for instance, the alpine environment represents the highest diversity of plants used for medicine, food, graz- ing, wood, as well as cash from market sales. Changes in the mountain biodiversity will consequently impact Tibetan medicine, herding and economy (Salick et al., 2009).

New and more effective systems in both capturing and storing water will become essential. This means both improved land management and improved storage methods, as well as tra- ditional knowledge may provide important answers (Shresta 2009). In order to understand the potential for water storage for climate change adaptation, one must fill considerable data gaps and analyze natural storage systems in the cryosphere and biosphere as well as constructed systems. Natural sys- tems include glacial lakes, snow, ice, soil moisture, groundwa- ter aquifers, natural water bodies and wetlands. Constructed systems include reservoirs, artificial ponds, tanks, groundwa- ter recharge systems, and temporary runoff collection areas. Historically, a wide range of techniques have been developed

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in different cultures to facilitate sustainable water manage- ment. Improved techniques for storage of water can benefit from a combination of traditional and more current scientific knowledge. Potential options are the installation of new water capture and storage methods, as well as the re-introduction of some of the ancient traditional irrigation systems, such as the qanat, foggara, karez, and falaj systems known from desert regions, and the pokhari, johad and pyne systems developed in hill areas. The ‘zabo’ approach from Northeast India to in- tegrate cultivation and water management in hilly, temperate areas illustrate well a simple but effective principle. The up- per hills are kept forested in order to collect and store rainwa- ter in small reservoirs, while the middle terraces partly detain runoff through small ponds., Further down cattle fields are located, and the base of the slope is used for cultivating paddy (Upadhya, 2009). Increasing sustainability of water manage- ment systems also includes irrigation systems and pipelines from major rivers, as deforestation frequently increases the rate and speed of the flow of water into major channels. The required training, the revival of old knowledge and imple- mentation will require funds and programmes directed to- wards adaptation.

Increasing water and irrigation efficiency will also require in- stitutional measures that help transform natural storage op- tions from a passive source to a planned active source. Several areas have been identified as important (Schild and Vaidya, 2009): There is a need for a comprehensive water risk assess- ment in order to document water availability, deficits in time and space and availability scenarios relative to climate change. There is also a clear need for increased monitoring of changes in snow and ice and measuring the monthly contribution of meltwater to river flow. Capacity building and training is needed for wetland conservation and water management. Wa- ter harvesting and watershed management in mountain areas build on large amounts of traditional knowledge that needs to be better documented, including assessing local governance and evaluating to what extent this knowledge can be brought into modern water resources management. In many cases water infiltration and groundwater aquifer recharge can be improved if proper techniques are employed. This, along with the development of modern, larger scale water storage sys- tems requires capacity building and training. The exchange of scientific, technological and traditional knowledge on the stor-