Water droplet on petals of a black-eyed susan © 2009 Steve Maka

Trust among actors is a factor that should not be underesti- mated when setting up PES schemes, particularly in environ- ments where the availability or acceptance of science is low.

Given the complexity of PES, more work is required to as- sess the viability and eff ectiveness of PES schemes. Similarly greater eff orts must be made to develop tools and guidelines for establishing PES schemes.

Training all stakeholders is a prerequisite to achieving a holis- tic grasp of the full potential and implications of PES schemes and their deployment.

One of

the most important factors for a successful PES scheme is to ensure that each project brings clear benefi ts to

VITAL GRAPHICS ON PAYMENT FOR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 69

individuals or communities, nurturing self-interest, which in turn encourages community involvement and responsibility.

Although PES and poverty alleviation are interlinked, buy- ers tend to view poverty reduction as a separate issue. Asking buyers to pay an additional sum to ensure a PES programme is more pro-poor may make involvement less attractive. It might even be seen as a tax on conservation eff orts. It may therefore be necessary to look for additional, specifi c sources of funding for schemes where a PES scheme is combined with poverty alleviation.