Longevity, Population Pressure and Warfare 99
is, threat and bluster, rather the real violence which results in much
loss of life, although head hunting amongst enemies certainly occurred.
We see the emergence of warriors, who spend a lot of time making
weapons and shields, and take a pride in their exploits. In this kind of
human warfare we find for the first time the concept of a dual morality,
namely, the morality within a tribal group which is based on altruism,
family values and a shared need for food and shelter. The neighbouring
tribe is subjected to a quite different morality, where aggression and
the used of weapons, such as spears, arrows, clubs and stone-headed
axes, became an essential part of human behaviour. The origin of this
continual warlike state cames from the fact that every habitable valley
becomes colonised, but living space is very limited. Ultimately, it is
derived from human success in mastering poor habitats, increasing
survival and longevity, and thereby becoming too overcrowded.
Once human populations start to increase in size, as a result of
increased average longevity, the rate of increase will be exponential,
as was first clearly pointed out by Thomas Malthus at the end of
the eighteenth century. Nevertheless this rate of increase can continue
for long periods during human social evolution. Villages become
small towns which turn into large towns. Large towns become small
city states, or nations, supported by an extensive agricultural base.
Technologies were accelerated in many ways, with more imaginative
use of wood, weaving and pottery, and there were larger, more
elaborate buildings. Later there was the smelting of metals: first copper
and bronze, and then iron and steel. City states eventually turned into
empires with very large populations. It is no accident that two of the
first great empires were on the banks of great rivers: Egypt next to
the Nile, and Mesopotamia on the Tigris and Euphrates. There was a
plentiful supply of water for the agriculture essential to support very
large populations.
These civilisations became very sophisticated, with large palaces.
temples and monuments, arts and crafts, and written languages. They
also had complex social structures, including kings and governments.
It was probably at this time that the human activity of organised
warfare became an accepted part of civilisation; weapons and armour
were manufactured in great quantity, and horses were trained. The
wheel had been invented, so chariots could be used. Above all, there
was plenty of manpower, simply because the populations had grown
so large. There were many reasons for warfare: acquisition of much
needed land; the capture of resources and treasure; the overthrow of
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