Fisheries catch worldwide, thereby affecting global fisheries

socially and economically (Cheung et al. 2010). For instance, recent studies estimate that climate change may lead to significant losses in revenues, profits and/or household incomes, although estimates are considered preliminary (Cooley and Doney 2009; Eide, 2007; Sumaila and Cheung 2010; Tseng and Chen 2008).

It is estimated that the world’s fishing fleet contributes 1.2 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions (Tyedmers et al. 2005). The challenge is to find ways to reduce this contribution, such as by phasing out subsidised trawler fleets, which generate extremely high emissions per tonne of fish landed.

2.2 Opportunities

Greening the world’s fisheries will help restore damaged marine ecosystems. When managed intelligently, fisheries will sustain a greater number of communities and enterprises, generating employment and raising household income, particularly for those engaged in artisanal fishing.

Jobs supported by global fisheries The world’s fisheries provide livelihoods to millions of people in coastal regions and contribute significantly to national economies. They are relied upon as a safety net by some of the world’s poorest, providing cash income and nutrition, especially during times of financial hardship. Healthy fisheries support the wellbeing of nations, through direct employment in fishing, processing, and ancillary services, as well as through subsistence-based activities. Overall, fish provides more than 2.9 billion people with at least 15 per cent of their average per capita animal protein intake (FAO 2009). The impact of the collapse of fisheries

would be devastating. Some 144 of the world’s countries possess marine fisheries, which provide jobs for local and foreign workers alike. It is estimated that in 2006, about 35 million people around the world were directly involved, either part time or full time, in fisheries primary production.

When considering post-catch activities and workers’ dependants, the number of people directly or indirectly supported by marine fisheries is about 520 million or nearly 8 per cent of the world’s population (FAO 2009).

There has been a steady increase in fisheries employment in most low-and middle-income countries, while in most industrialised countries, the trend has been towards a decrease in the number of people employed in capture fisheries. For example, since 1970, the number of fishers has fallen by 61 per cent and 42 per cent in Japan and Norway, respectively (FAO 2009).

Recreation and tourism Marine recreational

activities (MRAs) such as

recreational fishing, whale watching and diving have grown in popularity in recent years and they have consequently come to the forefront of discussion and research on the ecological, economic and social impacts of more benign forms of interacting with the sea (Aas 2008; Hoyt 2001; Pitcher and Hollingworth 2002).

To estimate the value of MRAs, Cisneros-Montemayor and Sumaila (2010) first identified three indicators of socio-economic

value in ecosystem-based marine

recreational activities, which are 1) the level of participation; 2) the total employment in the sector; and 3) the sum of direct expenditure by users. A database of reported expenditure on MRAs was then compiled for 144 coastal countries. Using this

Box 3: Small-scale fishing in Indonesia

Located at the north-eastern tip of Bali, Indonesia, is the fishing community of Les. Around 7,000 people live there, of whom some 1,500 make their living from fishing in coastal waters that have traditionally been rich in coral, fish and other marine organisms. Fishing for the aquarium trade has become one of the main sources of livelihood, with 75 households in the village now fully engaged in catching ornamental fish (UNEP 2006). Fishers in Les and neighbouring communities are switching from pelagic to ornamental fishing as the pelagic stocks become depleted in traditional fishing grounds, but ornamental fish are themselves threatened by damage to in-shore coral reefs caused by practices

such as cyanide fishing. As a result, villagers are being forced to fish for ornamentals further offshore and for longer periods.

Poison fishing has also led to substantial losses in revenue - estimated to amount to a net loss of as much as US$ 476,000 per km2

a year in Indonesia (Cesar 2002).

The authors also estimate that the net loss from the deterioration of fisheries could be about US$ 40,000 per km2

a year. Given that Indonesia has the world’s largest

coral reef system, Wicaksono et al. (2001), estimate that the country could meet 60 per cent of global demand for ornamentals, compared with just 6 per cent currently, if its fisheries are managed effectively.

91