special attention to essential habitats, safe minimum biomass levels, input controls, etc.;
■ Networks of reasonably large marine protected areas may be needed to accompany the implementation of ITQs to deal broadly with the ecosystem effects of overfishing, to allow for recovery, and to recognise uncertainty in the performance of ITQs. Such a network would benefit greatly by ensuring that it is designed to be compatible with conservation and ITQ goals and objectives;
■ Imposing limits to quota that can be held by each quota owner, to mitigate social problems associated with the concentration of fishing power, although its effectiveness is very variable. It is worth noting that this is already a feature of many existing ITQ systems. In some fisheries, equity concerns may be alleviated by allocating quotas to communities or to residents of a territorial area in the form of community transferable quotas (CTQs) and territorial user rights in fisheries (TURFS), respectively (Christy 1982; Wingard 2000; Charles 2002). With such schemes in place, the economic efficiency benefits of ITQs may be captured while minimising negative social impacts; and
■ Auctioning of quotas can be used in some fisheries to deal with the problem of initial allocation of quota and its equity implications (Macinko and Bromley 2002; Bromley 2009).
There are several areas of management where increased investment can be extremely beneficial. These include:
■ Stock-assessment programmes; ■ Monitoring and control programmes; and ■ Establishment of marine protected areas (MPA).
Stock assessment programmes are basic for fishery managers who require reliable statistics to inform them of the state of fish stocks so that they may keep a careful eye on whether fishing effort is appropriate for the sustainable use of the stock (Walters and Martell 2004).
Monitoring and control programmes are those that allow fisheries managers to determine whether fishers are acting in compliance with catch quotas or not. Such programmes are also necessary in terms of mitigating the impact of illegal and unreported fishing activities.
Historically, MPAs have not been used as a major tool in the management of the world’s fisheries. However, their role as a management tool has become more popular in recent years. Marine Protected Areas attempt to maintain the health of fish stocks by setting aside an area of the ocean that is free from fishing activity – allowing mature fish in these areas to escape into unfished areas, thereby ensuring the future resilience of the fishery.