Although there is a difference of opinion on the issue, Jalees (2008) has argued that the main cause for the extremely high rate of suicide among Indian farmers is the debt-servicing obligations for working capital (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides and GM seeds) costs.
The following section present some on- and off-farm investment strategies that will help minimise, eliminate and gradually reverse the environmental and economic costs resulting from currently predominant forms of agriculture.
3.2 Investment priorities for greening agriculture
Investments in R&D and Agribusinesses One of the major reasons for the wide spread adoption of the Green Revolution that greatly increased agricultural productivity was the level of first public, then private-sector investment in R&D and the subsequent dissemination and commercial implementation of the results. These gains were also achieved with the introduction of irrigation and greater application of inorganic agrochemical inputs. A new wave of investment is needed to develop, deploy and diffuse resource-efficient technologies and agricultural inputs, farming practices, and seed and livestock varieties that would counter the environmental externalities that are often associated with the green revolution.
The International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development noted that ROI in AKST across commodities, countries and regions on average are high (40-50 per cent) and have not declined over time. They are higher than the rate at which most governments can borrow money (Beintema and Elliott 2010). The commercial rate of return, however, should not be the only determinant of the decision to invest in R&D for greening agriculture. The social rate of return would be considerably higher if rural communities could adequately monetise the ecosystem, livelihood and socio-cultural benefits that would accrue with their adoption of greener agriculture practices and land stewardship (Perrings 1999).
Research to improve the performance of biological nitrogen fixation processes, breeding plant, livestock and aquatic species for improved yields and adaptive resilience and developing perennial cereal crops would enable significant reductions in the energy, water and fertiliser inputs needed to cultivate commodity grains. Such research may require several decades to produce commercially viable crop varieties with these beneficial attributes. However, the impacts would be significant in terms of providing options for future generations’ dependency on expensive fossil fuel-based fertilisers and adapting to expected climate change.
Plant and animal health management (PAHM) Field trials of improved PAHM practices have resulted in increased profitability of farms. Various intercropping strategies utilise selected plant species’ biochemical emissions to either attract or repel different insects, nematodes and other pests. One of the most effective such techniques is known as “push-pull”, which involves intercropping, for example, certain species of legumes and grasses with maize. Aromas produced by legumes planted on the perimeter of a field repel (push) maize pests, while scents produced by the grasses attract (pull) insects to lay their eggs on them rather than the maize.
The implementation of push-pull in eastern Africa has significantly increased maize yields and the combined cultivation of N-fixing forage crops has enriched the soil and has also provided farmers with feed for livestock. With increased livestock operations, the farmers are able to produce meat, milk and other dairy products and they use the manure as organic fertiliser that returns nutrients to the fields. In small-holder farming operations, the ability to support livestock for meat, milk and draft animal power is an important added benefit of this strategy (Khan et al. 2008). An economic analysis of a push-pull field trial in East Africa with 21,300 farmers revealed a benefit-cost ratio of 2.5 to 1. (Khan et al. 2008). The income returns for labour were US$ 3.7 per preson/ day with push-pull as opposed to US$ 1 person/day with their previous maize mono-cropping practice. The gross revenue ranges between US$ 424 and US$ 880 per hectare under push-pull and US$ 81.9 to US$ 132 per hectare in maize mono crop. Similar systems are being field-trialed for other cropping systems and it is likely that comparable rates of return will be realised.
Another example of PAHM practices is seen in Cameroon. In this case study (Dieu et al. 2006), cocoa farmers were trained in pruning, shade adjustment and phytosanitary harvesting methods that effectively maintained yields comparable to conventional practices that used multiple applications of fungicides. The farmers who practiced these techniques used 39 per cent fewer fungicides. Although labour costs increased by 14 per cent, total production costs decreased by 11 per cent relative to conventional practices. By introducing green farming, methods that relied on more knowledgeable labour inputs, a much larger share of the total costs of cocoa production was paid to workers within the local community. Imports of fungicide chemicals were also reduced, saving valuable foreign exchange. Additional benefits included reduced health costs and less environmental pollution (Velarde 2006).
Investments in PAHM should focus on research, training and investments in natural pest- management processes that defend, defeat and manage the many organisms that threaten agricultural production. While there are a